Effects of progestins on bone: an update

References

• Thijssen JHH. Progestins and bone. Zentralbl Gynäkol 1997;119:70–4
   Google Scholar
• Nordin BEC, Peacock M, Aaron J, et al. Osteoporosis and osteomalacia. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980;9:177–205
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Delmas PD. Osteoporosis: Who should be treated? Am J Med 1995;98(Suppl 2A):1S–2S
   Google Scholar
• Barrett-Connor E. Economic and human costs of osteoporotic fracture. Am J Med 1995;98 (Suppl 2A):3S–8S
   Google Scholar
• Cummings SR, Black D. Bone mass measurements and risk of fracture in Caucasian women: a review of findings from prospective studies. Am J Med 1995;98(Suppl 2A):24S–28S
   Google Scholar
• Pouilles JM, Trémollieres F, Bonneu M, et al. Influence of early age at menopause on vertebral bone mass. J Bone Min Res 1994;9:311–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ribot C, Trémollieres F, Pouilles JM. Bone involvement in endocrinopathies. Presse Méd 1994;23:985–90
   Google Scholar
• Ribot C, Trémolllieres F, Pouilles JM. The effect of obesity on postmenopausal bone loss and the risk of osteoporosis. Adv Nutr Res 1994;9: 257–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pouilles JM, Trémollieres F, Ribot C. Influence of body weight variations on the rate of bone loss at the beginning of menopause. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 1995;56:585–9
   Google Scholar
• Pouilles JM, Trémollieres F, Ribot C. Vertebral bone loss in perimenopause. Results of a 7-year longitudinal study. Presse Méd 1996;25:277–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ribot C, Trémollieres F, Pouilles J-M. Can we detect women with a low bone mass using clinical risk factors? Am J Med 1995;98(Suppl 2A): 52S–55S
   Google Scholar
• Pocock NA, Eisman JA, Hopper JL, et al. Genetic determinants of bone mass in adults. J Clin Invest 1987;80:706–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ralston SH. The genetics of osteoporosis. Q J Med 1997;90:247–51
   Google Scholar
• Harris M, Nguyen TV, Howard GM, et al. Genetic and environmental correlations between bone formation and bone mineral density: a twin study. Bone 1998;22:141–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper GS, Umbach DM. Are vitamin D receptor polymorphisms associated with bone mineral density? A meta-analysis. J Bone Min Res 1996; 11:1841–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arai H, Miyamoto K-I, Taketani Y, et al. A vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism in the translation initiation codon: effect on protein activity and relation to bone mineral density in Japanese women. J Bone Min Res 1997;12: 915–21
   Google Scholar
• Kobayashi S, Inoue S, Hosoi T, et al. Association of bone mineral density with polymorphism of the estrogen receptor gene. J Bone Min Res 1996; 11:306–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizunuma H, Hosoi T, Okano H, et al. Estrogen receptor gene polymorphism and bone mineral density at the lumbar spine of pre- and postmenopausal women. Bone 1997;21:379–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant SFA, Reid DM, Blake G, et al. Reduced bone density and osteoporosis associated with a polymorphic Sp1 site in the collagen type I alpha 1 gene. Nature Genet 1996;14:203–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uitterlinden AG, Grant SFA, Huang Q, et al. Sp1 binding site polymorphism in the COLIA1 gene is associated with BMD: the Rotterdam study. Osteoporosis Int 1996;6:124
   Google Scholar
• Roux C, Dougados M, Abel L, et al. Association of a polymorphism in the collagen I alpha 1 gene with osteoporosis in French women. Arthrit Rheum 1998;41:187–8
   Google Scholar
• Christiansen C, Riis BJ, Rodbro P. Screening procedure for women at risk of developing postmenopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporosis Int 1990;1:35–40
   Google Scholar
• Pouilles JM, Trémollieres F, Ribot C. Variability of vertebral and femoral postmenopausal bone loss: a longitudinal study. Osteoporosis Int 1996; 6:320–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonnelli S, Cepollaro C, Pondrelli C, et al. The usefulness of bone turnover in predicting the response to transdermal estrogen therapy in post-menopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Min Res 1997; 12:624–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesley RP, Shepard KA, Jenkins DK, et al. Monitoring estrogen replacement therapy and identifying rapid bone losers with an immuno-assay for deoxypyridinoline. Osteoporosis Int 1998; 8:159–64
   Google Scholar
• Hosking D, Chilvers CE, Christiansen C, et al. Prevention of bone loss with alendronate in postmenopausal women under 60 years of age. Early PostmenopausalIntervention CohortStudy Group. N Engl J Med 1998;338:485–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark S. More effort needed to halt osteoporotic bone loss. Lancet 1998;331:1335
   Google Scholar
• Kanis JA: The menopause and the skeleton: key issues. Baillierè’s Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1996;10: 469–81
   Google Scholar
• Albright F, Smith PH, Richardson AM: Post-menopausal osteoporosis – its clinical features. J Am Med Assoc 1941;116:2465–73
   Google Scholar
• Cauley JA, Sceley DG, Ensrud K. Estrogen replacement therapy and fractures in older women. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:9–16
   Google Scholar
• Lindsay R. The burden of osteoporosis:costs. Am J Med 1995;98(Suppl 2A):9S–11S
   Google Scholar
• Lips P. Prevention of hip-fractures: drug therapy. Bone 1996;18\(Suppl 3):159S–63S
   Google Scholar
• Masi L, Bilezikian JP. Osteoporosis:new hopefor the future. Int J Fertil Women’s Med 1997;42: 245–54
   Google Scholar
• Eriksen EF, Colvard DS, Berg NJ, et al. Evidence of estrogen receptors in normal human osteoblast-like cells. Science 1988;241:84–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei LL, Leach MW, Miner RS, et al. Evidence for progesterone receptors in human osteoblast-like cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993;195: 525–32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pasqualini JR, Campagnoli C, Druckmann R, et al. Progestins: present and future. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1996;59:357–63
   Google Scholar
• Graham JD, Clarke CL. Physiological action of progesterone in target tissues.Endocr Rev 1997;18: 502–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibata H, Spencer TE, Onate SA, et al. Role of co-activators and co-repressors in the mechanism of steroid/thyroid receptor action. Rec Prog Horm Res 1997;52:141–65
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Darney PD. The androgenicity of progestins. Am J Med 1995;98(Suppl 1A):104S–110S
   Google Scholar
• Trémollieres FA, Strong DD, Baylink DJ, et al. Progesterone and promegestone stimulate bone cell proliferation and insulin-like growth factor-2 production. Acta Endocrinol 1992;126: 329–37
   Google Scholar
• Trémolierres FA, Capilla F, Cigagna F, et al. Augmentation de la prolifération cellulaire par l’acétate de nomégestrol dans des cultures d’ostéoblastes humains. Reprod Hum Horm 1997; 10:8–24
   Google Scholar
• Verhaar HJ, Damen CA, Duursma SA, et al. A comparison of the action of progestins and estrogen on the growth and differentiation of normal adult human osteoblast-like cells in vitro. Bone 1994;15:307–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaar HJ, Damen CA, Duursma SA, et al. Comparison of the action of 17b-estradiol and progestins with insulin-like growth factors-I/-II and TGF-b1 on the growth of normal adult human bone forming cells. Maturitas 1995;21: 237–43
   Google Scholar
• Lau KH, Wang SP, Linkhart TA, et al. Picomolar norethindrone in vitro stimulates the cell proliferation and activity of a human osteosarcoma cell line and increases bonecollagen synthesiswithout an effect on bone resorption. J Bone Min Res 1994;9:695–704
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen L, Scholler J, Foged NT. Effects of progesterone on proliferation and differentiation of fetal rat calvarial osteoblasts in vitro. Chung Hua Fu Chan Ko Tsa Chih 1997;32:538–40
   Google Scholar
• Ishida Y, Heersche JN. Progesterone stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteopro-genitor cells in bone cell populations derived from adult female but not from adult male rats. Bone 1997;20:17–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saito H, Yanaihara T. Steroid formation in osteoblast-like cells. J Int Med Res 1998;26:1–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prior JC. Progesterone as a bone-trophic hormone. Endocr Rev 1990;11:386–98
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DeCherney A. Bone-sparing properties of oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174: 15–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kritz-Silverstein D, Barrett-Connor E. Bone mineral density in postmenopausal women as determined by prior oral contraceptive use. Am J Public Health 1993;83:100–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe A, Amram A, Cagnacci A, et al. Biochemical aspects of hormonal contraception: effects on bone metabolism. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1997;2:123–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Castelo-Branco C, Martinez-de-Osaba MJ, Pons F, et al. Effects on bone mass of two oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol and cyproterone acetate or desogestrel: results of a 2-year follow-up. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1998;3:79–84
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Speroff L, Rowan J, Symons J, et al. The comparative effect on bone density, endometrium and lipids of continuous hormones as replacement therapy. J Am Med Assoc 1996;276: 1397–1403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasra M, Vanin CM, MacLusky NJ, et al. Effects of different estrogen and progestin regimens on the mechanical properties of rat femur. J Orthop Res 1997;15:118–23
   Google Scholar
• Taneepanichskul S, Intaraprasert S, Theppisai U, et al. Bone mineral density during long-term treatment with Norplant implants and depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. A cross-sectional study of Thai women. Contraception 1997;56: 153–5
   Google Scholar
• Taneepanichskul S, Intaraprasert S, Theppisai U, et al. Bone mineral density in long-term depot medroxyprogesterone acetate acceptors. Contraception 1997;56:1–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GboladeB, Ellis S, Murby B, et al. Bone density in long term users of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:790–4
   Google Scholar
• Hussain SY, Massil JH, Matta WH, et al. Buserelin in premenstrual syndrome. Gynecol Endocrinol 1992;6:57–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawood MY, Lewis V, Ramos J. Cortical and trabecular bone mineral content in women with endometriosis: effect of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist and danazol. Fertil Steril 1989; 52:21–6
   Google Scholar
• Studd J, Leather AT. The need for add-back with gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist therapy.Br J ObstetGynaecol1996;103(Suppl14):1–4
   Google Scholar
• Freundi G, Godtke K, Gnoth C, et al. Steroidal add-backtherapy in patients treated with GnRH-agonists. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1998;45(Suppl 1): 22–30
   Google Scholar
• Castelo-Branco C, Martinez-de-Osaba MJ, Pons F, et al. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog plus an oral contraceptive containing desogestrel in women with severe hirsutism: effects on hair, bone, and hormone profile after 1-year use. Metabolism 1997;46:437–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregoriou O, Konidaris S, Vitoratos N, et al. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue plus hormone replacement therapy for the treatment of endometriosis: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Fertil Women’s Med 1997;42:406–11
   Google Scholar
• Surrey ES. Add-back therapy: extending safety and efficacy of GnRH analogues in the gynecologic patient. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1998; 45(Suppl 1):31–5
   Google Scholar
• Hornstein MD, Surrey ES, Weisberg GW, et al. Leuprolide acetate depot and hormonal add-back in endometriosis: a 12 month study. Lupron Add-Back Study Group. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91: 16–24
   Google Scholar
• Kiesel L, Schweppe KW, Sillem, et al. Should add-back therapy for endometriosis be deferred for optimal results? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103 (Suppl 14):15–17
   Google Scholar
• Caird LE, West CP, Lumsden MA, et al. Medroxyprogesterone acetate with Zoladex for long-term treatment of fibroids: effects on bone density and patient acceptability. Hum Reprod 1997;12:436–40
   Google Scholar
• Prior JC, Vigna YM, Wark JD, et al. Premeno-pausal ovariectomy-related bone loss: a randomized, double-blind, one-year trial of conjugated estrogen or medroxyprogesterone acetate. J Bone Min Res 1997;12:1851–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawood MY, Obasiolu CW, Ramos J, et al. Clinical, endocrine, and metabolic effects of two doses of gestrinone in treatment of pelvic endo-metriosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:387–94.
   Google Scholar
• KatsukiY, Takano Y, FutamuraY, et al. Effects of dienogest, a synthetic steroid, on experimental endometriosis in rats. Eur J Endocrinol 1998;138: 216–26
   Google Scholar
• Palomba S, Affinito P, Tommaselli GA, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of tibolone administered with gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues for the treatment of uterine leiomyomata. Fertil Steril 1998;70:111–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taskin O, Yalcinoglu AI, Kucuk S, et al. Effectiveness of tibolone on hypoestrogenic symptoms induced by goserelin treatment in patients with endometriosis. Fertil Steril 1997;67:40–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodin S, Lemay A, Maheux R, et al. Bone mass in endometriosis patients treated with GnRH implantor danazol.Obstet Gynecol 1991;7:410–15
   Google Scholar
• Gorai-I, TaguchiY, ChakiO, etal. Serum soluble interleukin-6 receptor and biochemical markers of bone metabolism show significant variations during the menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:326–32
   Google Scholar
• De Souza MJ, Miller BE, Sequenzia LC, et al. Bone health is not affected by luteal phase abnormalities and decreased ovarian progesterone production in female runners. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2867–76
   Google Scholar
• Hergenroeder AC, Smith EO, Shypailo R, et al. Bone mineral changes in young women with hypothalamic amenorrhea treated with oral contraceptives, medroxyprogesterone acetate or placebo over 12 months. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:1017–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Udoff L, Langenberg P, Adashi EY. Combined continuous hormone replacement therapy: a critical review. Obstet Gynecol 1996;86:306–16
   Google Scholar
• Mauras N, Vieira NE, Yergey AL. Estrogen therapy enhances calcium absorption and retention and diminishes bone turnover in young girls with Turner’s syndrome: a calcium kinetic study. Metabolism 1997;46:90–13
   Google Scholar
• McKane WR, Khosla S, Burritt MF, et al. Mechanism of renal calcium conservation with estrogen replacement therapy in women in early menopause:a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:3458–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikkinen AM, Parviainen MT, Tuppurainen MT, et al. Effects of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy with and without vitamin D3 on circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D. Calcif Tissue Int 1998;62:26–30
   Google Scholar
• Tamborini A, Ruiz JC. Réponse osseuse aux traitements hormonaux utilisés en gynécologie. Repr Hum Horm 1998;11:796–807
   Google Scholar
• Williams SR, Frenchek B, SperoffT, et al. A study of combined continuous ethinylestradiol and norethindrone acetate for postmenopausal hormone replacement. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 162:438–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher JC, Kable WT, Goldgar D. Effect of progestin therapy on cortical and trabecular bone: comparison with estrogen. Am J Med 1991;90: 171–8
   Google Scholar
• El-Hajj Fuleihan G, Brown EM, Curtis K, et al. Effects of sequential and daily continuous hormone replacement therapy on indexes of mineral metabolism. Arch Int Med 1992;152:1904–9
   Google Scholar
• Grey AB, Cundy TF, Reid IR. Continuous combined oestrogen/progestin therapy is well tolerated and increases bone density at the hip and spine in post-menopausal osteoporosis. Clin Endocrinol 1994;40:671–7
   Google Scholar
• Grey A, Cundy T, Evans M, et al. Medroxy-progesterone acetate enhances the spinal bone mineral density response to oestrogens in late postmenopausalwomen.Clin Endocrinol 1996;44: 293–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Writing Group for the PEPI Trial. Effects of hormone therapy on bone mineral density. J Am Med Assoc 1996;276:1389–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adachi JD, Sargeant EJ, Sagle MA, et al. A double-blind randomised controlled trial of the effects of medroxyprogesterone acetate on bone density of women taking estrogen replacement therapy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:64–70
   Google Scholar
• Mizunuma H, Okano H, Soda M, et al. Prevention of postmenopausal bone loss with minimal uterine bleeding using low dose continuous estrogen/progestin therapy: a 2 year prospective study. Maturitas 1997;27:69–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felson DT, Zhang Y, Hannan MT, et al. The effect of postmenopausal estrogen therapy on bone density in elderly women. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1141–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimalawansa SJ. A four-year randomized controlled trial of hormone replacement and bisphosphonate, alone or in combination, in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Am J Med 1998;104:219–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chesnut CH III, Bell NH, Clark GS, et al. Hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women: urinary N-telopeptide of type I collagen monitors therapeutic effect and predicts response of bone mineral density. Am J Med 1997;102: 29–37
   Google Scholar
• Genant HK, Lucas J, Weiss S, et al. Low-dose esterified estrogens therapy: effects on bone, plasma estradiol concentrations, endometrium and lipid levels. Arch Int Med 1997;157:2609–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ettinger B, Genant HK, Steiger P, et al. Low-dosage micronized 17-beta-estradiol prevents bone loss in postmenopausal women. J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:479–88
   Google Scholar
• Castelo-Branco C, Pons F, Gonzalez-Merlo J. Bone mineral density in surgically postmeno-pausal women receiving hormonal replacement therapy as assessed by dual photon absorptio-metry. Maturitas 1993;16:133–7
   Google Scholar
• Evans SF, Davie MW. Low and conventional dose transdermal oestradiol are equally effective at preventing bone loss in spine and femur at all post-menopausal ages. Clin Endocrinol 1996;44: 79–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Studd JW, MacCarthy K, Zamblera D, et al. Efficacy and safety of Menorest (50 mg/day) compared to Premarin 0.625 mg in the treatment of menopausal symptoms and the prevention of bone loss, in menopausal women. A single-center, comparative, randomized, double-blind, double-dummy study. Scand J Rheumatol (Suppl) 1996;103: 89–90
   Google Scholar
• De Aloysio D, Rovat LC, Cadossi R, et al. Bone effects of transdermal hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women as evaluated by means of ultrasound: an open one-year prospective study. Maturitas 1997;27:61–8
   Google Scholar
• Jewelewicz R. New developments in topical estrogen therapy. Fertil Steril 1996;67:1–12
   Google Scholar
• O’Sullivan AJ, Crampton LJ, Freund J, et al. The route of estrogen replacement therapy confers divergent effects on substrate oxidation and body composition in postmenopausal women. J Clin Invest 1998;102:1035–40
   Google Scholar
• Hirvonen E, Cacciatore B, Wahlstrom T, et al. Effects of transdermal oestrogen therapy in postmenopausal women: a comparative study of an oestradiol gel and an oestradiol delivering patch. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104(Suppl 16): 26–31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirvonen E, Lamberg Allardt C, Lankinen KS, et al. Transdermal oestradiol gel in the treatment of the climacterium: a comparison with oral therapy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104\(suppl 16): 19–25
   Google Scholar
• Naessen T, Berglund L, Ulmsten U. Bone loss in elderly women prevented by ultralow doses of parenteral 17-beta-estradiol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177: 115–19
   Google Scholar
• Nigel Holland EF, Leather AT, Studd JWW. Increase in bone mass of older postmenopausal women with low mineral bone density after one year of percutaneous oestradiol implants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:238–42
   Google Scholar
• Ryde SJS, Bowen-Simpkins K, Bowen-Simkins P, et al. The effect of oestradiol implants on regional and total bone mass: a three-year longitudinal study. Clin Endocrinol 1994;40:33–8
   Google Scholar
• Itoi H, Minakami H, Sato I. Comparison of the long-term effects of oral estriol with the effects of conjugated estrogen, 1-alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3 and calcium lactate on vertebral bone loss in early menopausal women. Maturitas 1997;28: 11–17
   Google Scholar
• Riis BJ, Thomsen K, Strom V, et al. The effect of percutaneous estradiol and natural progesterone on postmenopausalbone loss. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156:61–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Valk-de Roo GW, Netelenbos JC, Peters-Muller IR, et al. Continuously combined hormone replacement therapy and bone turnover: the influence of dydrogesterone dose, smoking and initial degree of bone turnover. Maturitas 1997;28:153–62
   Google Scholar
• Foster RH, Balfour JA. Estradiol and dydro-gesterone. A review of their combined use as hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. Drugs Aging 1997;11:309–32
   Google Scholar
• Belaïsch J, Delchambre J. Progestatifs et os. Contracept Fertil Sex 1993;21:853–60
   Google Scholar
• Marslew U, Overgaard K, Riis BJ, et al. Two new combinations of estrogen and progesterone for prevention of postmenopausal bone loss: long-term effect on bone, calcium and lipid metabolism, climacteric symptoms,and bleeding. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:202–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christiansen C, Riis BJ. 17-beta-estradiol and continuous norethisterone: a unique treatment for established osteoporosis in elderly women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;71:836–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christiansen C, Riis BJ. Five years with continuous combined oestrogen/progestogen therapy: Effects on calcium metabolism, lipoproteins, and bleeding pattern. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97: 1087–92
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klehr-Bahrmann I, Kuhl H. Formation of ethinylestradiol in postmenopausal women during continuous treatment with a combination of estradiol, estriol and norethisterone acetate. Maturitas 1995;21:245–50
   Google Scholar
• Riis BJ, Johansen J, Christiansen C. Continuous oestrogen–progestogen treatment and bone metabolism in post-menopausal women. Maturitas 1988;10:51–8
   Google Scholar
• Eiken P, Pors Nielsen S, Kolthoff N. Effects on bone mass after eight years of hormonal replacement therapy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104: 702–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saure A, Hirvonen E, Tikkanen MJ, et al. A novel oestradiol–desogestrel preparation for hormone replacement therapy: effects on hormones, lipids, bone, climacteric symptoms and endometrium. Maturitas 1993;16:1–12
   Google Scholar
• Zartarian M, Micheletti MC, Gauthier A, et al. Effects on the quality of menstrual cycles and hot flushes of nomegestrol acetate used alone or associated with cutaneous 17-beta estradiol in inversed sequence in perimenopausal women. Contracept Fertil Sex 1998;26:69–76
   Google Scholar
• Trémollieres F, Pouilles JM, Ribot C. Effect of long term administration of progestogen on postmenopausal bone loss: result of a two-year controlled study. Clin Endocrinol 1993;38: 627–31
   Google Scholar
• Berning B, Kuijk CV, Kuiper JW, et al. Effects of two doses of tibolone on trabecular and cortical bone losses in early postmenopausal women: a two year randomized, placebo-controlled study. Bone 1996;19:395–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjarnason NH, Bjarnason K, Hassager C, et al. The response in spinal bone mass to tibolone treatment is related to bone turnover in elderly women. Bone 1997;20:151–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay PC, Shaw RW, Bennink HJ, et al. The effect of add-back treatment with tibolone (Livial) on patients treated with the gonadotro-pin-releasing hormone agonist triptorelin (Decapeptyl). Fertil Steril 1996;65:342–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippuner K, Haenggi W, Birkhaeuser MH, et al. Prevention of postmenopausal bone loss using tibolone or conventional peroral or transdermal hormone replacement therapy with 17-beta-estradiol and dydrogesterone. J Bone Min Res 1997;12:806–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prelevic EM, Bartram C, Wood J, et al. Comparative effects on bone mineral density of tibolone, transdermal estrogen and oral estrogen/progesto-gen therapy in postmenopausal women. Gynecol Endocrinol 1996;10:413–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis SR, McCloud P, Strauss BJ, et al. Testoster-oneenhancesestradiol’s effect on postmenopausal bone density and sexuality. Maturitas 1995;21: 227–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raisz LG, Wiita B, Arts A, et al. Comparison of the effects of estrogen alone and estrogen plus androgen on biochemical markers of bone formation and resorption in postmeno-pausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81: 37–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munnoz-Torres M, Jodar E, Quesada M, et al. Bone mass in androgen-insensitivity syndrome: response to hormonal replacement therapy. Calcif Tissue Int 1995;57:94–6
   Google Scholar
• Draper MW, Flowers DE, Huster WJ, et al. A controlled trial of raloxifene (LY139481) HCl: impact on bone turnover and serum lipid profile in healthy postmenopausal women. J Bone Min Res 1996;11:835–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ke HZ,ChenHK,SimmonsHA,etal.Comparative effects of droloxifene, tamoxifen, and estrogen on bone, serum cholesterol, and uterine histology in the ovariectomized rat model. Bone 1997;20:31–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato M, Rippy MK, Bryant HU. Raloxifene, tamoxifen, nafoxidine, or estrogen effects on reproductive and nonreproductive tissues in ovariectomized rats. FASEB J 1996;10:905–12
   Google Scholar