Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: putting the risk into perspective

REFERENCES

• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormone replace-ment therapy: collaborative re-analysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52 705 women with breast cancer and 108 411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 1997;350:1047–59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnusson C, Baron JA, Correia N, et al. Breast-cancer risk following long-term oestrogen—progestin-replacement therapy. Int J Cancer 1999; 81:339–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson I, Weiderpass E, Bergkvist L, et al. Risk of breast and endometrial cancer after estrogen—progestin replacement. Cancer Causes Control 1999;10:253–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schairer C, Lubin J, Troisi R, et al. Menopausal estrogen and estrogen—progestin replacement ther-apy and breast cancer risk. J Am Med Assoc 2000;26:283–91
   Google Scholar
• Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, et al. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:328–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Ambroggio S, Biglia N, et al. Con-jugated estrogens and breast cancer risk. Gynecol Endocrinol 1999;12(Suppl 6):13–19
   Google Scholar
• Laidlaw IJ, Clarke RB, Howell A, et al. The prolif-eration of normal human breast tissue implanted into athymic nude mice is stimulated by estrogen but not progesterone. Endocrinology 1995;136: 164–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasqualini JR, Chetrite G, Blacker C, et al. Con-centrations of estrone, estradiol, and estrone sulfate and evaluation of sulfatase and aromatase activities in pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1460–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poortman J, Thijssen JHH, De Waard F. Plasma oestrone, estradiol and androstenedione levels in post-menopausal women: relation to body weight and height. Maturitas 1981;3:65–71
   Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Cantamessa C, et al. HRT and breast cancer risk: a clue for interpreting the available data. Maturitas 1999;33:185–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaaks R. Nutrition, hormones, and breast cancer: is insulin the missing link? Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:605–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaaks R, Toniolo P, Akhmedkhanov A, et al. Serum C-peptide, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-binding proteins, and colonrectal cancer risk in women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92: 1592–600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Colditz GA, et al. Circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I and risk of breast cancer. Lancet 1998;351: 1393–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toniolo P, Bruning PF, Akhmedkhanov A, et al. Serum insulin-like growth factor-I and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2000;88:828–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nachtigall EE. Sex hormone-binding globulin and breast cancer risk. Prim Care Update Obstet Gynecol 1999;6:39–43
   Google Scholar
• Westley BR, May FEB. Role of insulin-like growth factors in steroid modulated proliferation. J Steroid Biochem Molec Biol 1994;51:1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortunati N, Becchis M, Catalano MG, et al. Sex hormone-binding globulin, its membrane recep-tors, and breast cancer: a new approach to the modulation of estradiol action in neoplastic cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1999;69:473–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Peris C, et al. Potential impact on breast cancer risk of circulating insulin-like growth factor-I modifications induced by oral HRT in menopause. Gynecol Endocrinol 1995;9:67–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollak M. IGF-I physiology and breast cancer. Rec Results Cancer Res 1998;152:63–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Decensi A, Bonanni B, Guerieri-Gonzaga A, et al. Biologic activity of tamoxifen at low doses in healthy women.J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:1461–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Ambroggio S, Biglia N, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I and the risk of breast cancer [Letter]. Lancet 1998;352:488–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carmina E, Lo Dico G, Carob o F, et al. Serum IGF-I and binding proteins 1 and 3 in postmeno-pausal women and the effects of estrogen. Meno-pause 1996;3:85–9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helle SI, Omsjo IH, Cwyfan-Hughes SC, et al. Effects of oral and transdermal oestrogen replace-ment therapy on plasma levels of insulin-like growth factors and IGF binding proteins 1 and 3: a cross-over study. Clin Endocrinol 1996;45: 727–32
   Google Scholar
• Heald A, Selby PL, White A, et al. Progestins abrogate estrogen-induced changes in the insulin-like growth factor axis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183:593–600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kam GYW, Leung KC, Baxter RC, et al. Estrogens exert route- and dose-dependent effects on insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-3 and the acid-labile subunit of the IGF ternary com-plex. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:1918–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellantoni MF, Vittone J, Campfield AT, et al. Effects of oral vs transdermal estrogen on the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-I axis in younger and older postmenopausal women: a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:2848–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grodstein F, Martinez ME, Platz EA, et al. Post-menopausal hormone use and risk for colonrectal cancer and adenoma. Ann Intern Med 1998;128: 705–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson B, Mattsson LA, Hahn L, et al. Estrogen replacement therapy decreases hyperandrogenicity and improves glucose homeostasis and plasma lipids in postmenopausal women with noninsulin-dep endent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:638–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newcomb PA, Longnecker MP, Storer BE, et al. Long-term hormone replacement therapy and risk of breast cancer in post-menopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 1995;142:788–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ, et al. The use of estrogens and progestins and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1589–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford J, Weiss N, Voigt L, et al. Combined estrogen and progestin hormone replacement therapy in relation to risk of breast cancer in mid-dle-aged women. J Am Med Assoc 1995;274: 137–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willett WC, Colditz G, Stampfer M. Postmeno-pausal estrogen — opposed, unopposed, or none of the above. J Am Med Assoc 2000;26:534–5
   Google Scholar
• Ewertz M. Influence of non-contraceptive exo-genous and endogenous sex hormone on breast cancer risk in Denmark. IntJ Cancer 1988;42:832–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson I, Yuen J, Bergkvist L, et al. Cancer inci-dence and mortality in women receiving estrogen and estrogen—progestin replacement therapy — long-term follow-up of a Swedish cohort. Int J Cancer 1996;67:327–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson I, Thurriel E, Bergstrom R, et al. Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of breast cancer: nested case—control study in a cohort of Swedish women attending mammography screening. Int J Cancer 1997;72:758–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnusson C, Persson I, Adami HO. Effect of hor-mone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus progestin [Letter]. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;14:1183–4
   Google Scholar
• Miller VT, Muesing RA, LaRosa JC, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen with and without three different progestogens on lipoproteins, high-density lipoprotein sub fractions, and ap olip o-proteins A-1. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:235–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Cantamessa C, et al. Effects of progestins on IGF-I serum level in estrogen-treated postmenopausal women. Zentralbl Gynäkol 1997;119:7–11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foidart JM, Colin C, Deno o X, et al. Estradiol and progesterone regulate the proliferation of human breast epithelial cells. Fertil Steril 1998;69:963–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schindler AE, Campagnoli C, Druckmann R, et al. Aspects ofprogestin activity on the breast. Maturitas 1998;29:61–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speroff L. Postmenopausal estrogen—progestin therapy and breast cancer: a clinical response to epidemiological reports. Climacteric 2000;3:3–12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mor G, Yue W, Santen RJ, et al. Macrophages, estrogen, and the micro environment of breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1998;5:403–11
   Google Scholar
• Mor G, Kohen F, Garcia-Velasco J, et al. Regula-tion of Fas ligand expression in breast cancer cells by estrogen: functional differences between estradiol and tamoxifen. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2000;73:185–94
   Google Scholar
• Kuller LH. Effect of ho rmone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus pro gestin [Letter]. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;13:1100
   Google Scholar
• Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Roy S, et al. Past and present preferred prescribing practices of hormone replacement therapy among Los Angeles gynecolo-gists: possible implications for public health. Am J Public Health 1998;78:516–19
   Google Scholar
• Gambrell RD, Maier RC, Sanders BI. Decreased incidence of breast cancer in postmenopausal estrogen—progestogen users. Obstet Gynecol 1983; 62:435–43
   Google Scholar