194
Views
45
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Fullerenes

, , , &
Pages 333-370 | Received 19 Apr 2003, Accepted 02 Jun 2003, Published online: 06 Feb 2007

References

  • Kroto , H. W. , Heath , J. R. , O'Brien , S. C. , Curl , R. F. and Smalley , R. E. 1985 . Buckminsterfullerene . Nature , 318 : 162 – 163 .
  • Krätschmer , W. , Lamb , L. D. , Fostiropoulos , K. and Huffman , D. 1990 . Solid C60: a new form of carbon . Nature , 347 : 354 – 358 .
  • Buseck , P. 2002 . Geologic fullerenes: review and analysis . Earth Planet Sci. Lett. , 203 : 781 – 792 .
  • Becker , L. , Bada , J. L. , Winans , R. E. and Bunch , T. E. 1994 . Fullerenes in Allende meteorite . Nature , 372 : 507
  • Ash , R. D. , Russell , S. S. , Wright , I. P. and Pillinger , C. T. 1993 . “ Minor high temperature components confirmed in carbonaceous chondrites by stepped combustion using a new sensitive static mass spectrometer ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXII 35 – 36 . Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Gilmour , I. , Russell , S. S. , Newton , J. , Pillinger , C. T. , Arden , J. W. , Dennis , T. J. , Hare , J. P. , Kroto , H. W. , Taylor , R. and Walton , D. R.M. 1993 . “ A search for the presence of C60 as an interstellar grain in meteorites ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXII 445 – 446 . Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • DeVries , M. S. , Reihs , K. , Wendt , H. R. , Golden , W. G. , Hunziker , H. E. , Fleming , R. , Peterson , E. and Chang , S. 1993 . A search for C60 in carbonaceous chondrites . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 57 : 933 – 935 .
  • Heymann , D. 1995a . “ Search for extractable fullerenes in the Allende meteorite ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXV 595 – 596 . Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Heymann , D. 1995 . Search for extractable fullerenes in the Allende meteorite . Meteoritics , 30 : 436 – 438 .
  • Heymann , D. 1997 . Fullerenes and fulleranes in meteorites revisited . Astrophys. J. , 489 : L111 – L114 .
  • Braga , M. , Larsson , S. , Rosen , A. and Volosov , A. 1991 . Electronic transitions in C60‐on the origin of the strong interstellar absorption at 217 nm . Astron. Astrophys. , 245 : 232 – 238 .
  • Van Der Zwet , G. P. and Allamandola , L. J. 1985 . Polycyclic aromatic‐hydrocarbons and the diffuse interstellar bands . Astron. Astrophys. , 146 : 76 – 80 .
  • Léger , A. and D'Hendecourt , L. 1985 . Are polycyclic aromatic‐hydrocarbons the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible? . Astron. Astrophys. , 146 : 81 – 85 .
  • Crawford , M. K. , Tielens , A. G.G.M. and Allamandola , L. J. 1985 . Ionized polycyclic aromatic‐hydrocarbons and the diffuse interstellar bands . Astrophys. J. Lett. , 293 : L45 – L48 .
  • Ehrenfreund , P. and Charnley , S. B. 2000 . Organic molecules in the interstellar medium, comets, and meteorites: a voyage from dark clouds to the early earth . Ann. Rev. Astron. Astr. , 38 : 427 – 483 .
  • Heath , J. R. , Curl , R. F. and Smalley , R. E. 1987 . The UV absorption spectrum of C60 (buckminsterfullerene): a narrow band at 3860 Å . J. Chem Phys. , 87 : 4236 – 4238 .
  • Léger , A. , D'Hendecourt , L. , Verstraete , L. and Schmidt , W. F. 1988 . Remarkable candidates for the carrier of the diffuse interstellar bands: C60 + and other polyhedral carbon ions . Astron. Astrophys. , 203 : 145 – 148 .
  • Foing , B. H. and Ehrenfreund , P. 1994 . Detection of two interstellar absorption bands coincident with spectral features of C60 + . Nature , 369 : 296 – 298 .
  • Foing , B. H. and Ehrenfreund , P. 1997 . New evidence for interstellar C60 + . Astron. Astrophys. , 317 : L59 – L62 .
  • Ehrenfreund , P. and Foing , B. H. 1995 . Search for fullerenes and PAHS in the diffuse interstellar medium . Planet. Space Sci. , 43 : 1183 – 1187 .
  • Ehrenfreund , P. and Foing , B. H. 1997 . Fullerenes in space . Adv. Space Res. , 19 : 1033 – 1042 .
  • Sonnentrucker , P. , Cami , J. , Ehrenfreund , P. and Foing , B. H. 1997 . The diffuse interstellar bands at 5797, 6379 and 6613 Å.‐ionization properties of the carriers . Astron. Astrophys. , 327 : 1215 – 1221 .
  • Fulara , J. and Krelowski , J. 2000 . Origin of diffuse interstellar bands: spectroscopic studies of their possible carriers . New Astron. Rev. , 44 : 581 – 597 .
  • Galazutdinov , G. A. , Krelowski , J. , Musaev , F. A. , Ehrenfreund , P. and Foing , B. H. 2000 . On the identification of the C60 +, interstellar features . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 317 : 750 – 758 .
  • Webster , A. S. 1991 . Comparison of a calculated spectrum of C60H60 with the unidentified astronomical IR emission features . Nature , 352 : 412 – 414 .
  • Webster , A. S. 1992 . Fulleranes, fullerenes and the interstellar extinction . Astron. Astrophys. , 257 : 750 – 756 .
  • Webster , A. S. 1992 . Fullerenes, fulleranes and the diffuse interstellar bands . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 255 : P41 – P42 .
  • Webster , A. S. 1993 . The vibrations of C60H60 and the unidentified infrared‐emission . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 264 : 121 – 131 .
  • Webster , A. S. 1993 . The fullerane C60H2 and the interstellar extinction . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 263 : L55 – L58 .
  • Webster , A. S. 1997 . The interstellar extinction curve and the absorption spectra of two fulleranes . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 288 : 221 – 224 .
  • Jenniskens , P. , Mulas , G. , Poceddu , I. and Benvenuti , P. 1977 . Diffuse interstellar bands near 9600 Å. not due to C60 + yet . Astron. Astrophys. , 327 : 337 – 341 .
  • Moutou , C. , Sellgren , K. , Verstraete , L. and Léger , A. 1999 . Upper limit on C60 and C60 + features in the ISO‐SWS spectrum of the reflection nebula NGC 7023 . Astron. Astrophys. , 347 : 949 – 956 .
  • Snow , T. P. and Seab , C. G. 1989 . A search for interstellar and circumstellar C60 . Astron. Astrophys. , 213 : 291 – 294 .
  • Somerville , W. B. and Bellis , J. G. 1991 . An astronomical search for the molecule C60 . Mon. Not. R. Astr. Soc. , 240 : P41 – P46 .
  • Sassara , A. , Zerza , G. , Chergui , M. and Leach , S. 2001 . Absorption wavelengths and bandwidths for interstellar searches of C60 in the 2400–4100 Å. region . Astrophys. J. Suppl. , S135 : 263 – 273 .
  • Justannont , K. , Barlow , M. J. , Skinner , C. J. , Roche , P. F. , Aitken , D. K. and Smith , C. H. 1996 . Mid‐infrared spectroscopy of carbon‐rich post‐AGB objects and detection of the PAH molecule chrysene . Astron. Astrophys. , 309 : 612 – 628 .
  • Garcia‐Lario , P. , Manchado , A. , Ulla , A. and Manteiga , M. 1999 . Infrared space observatory observations of IRAS 16594‐4565: a new proto‐planetary nebula with a strong 21 micron dust feature . Astrophys. J. , 513 : 941 – 946 .
  • Kroto , H. W. 1989 . The role of linear and spheroidal carbon molecules in interstellar grain formation . Ann. Phys. (Paris) , 14 : 169 – 179 .
  • Kroto , H. W. 1994 . Smaller carbon species in the laboratory and space . Int. J. Mass Spectrom. , 138 : 1 – 15 .
  • Kroto , H. W. and Jura , M. 1992 . Circumstellar and interstellar fullerenes and their analogs . Astron. Astrophys. , 263 : 275 – 280 .
  • Kroto , H. W. and Walton , D. R.M. 1993 . Polyynes and the formation of fullerene . Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. , A343 : 103 – 112 .
  • Kroto , H. W. , Heath , J. R. , O'Brien , S. C. , Curl , R. F. and Smalley , R. E. 1987 . Long carbon chain molecules in circumstellar shells . Astrophys. J. , 314 : 352 – 355 .
  • Herlin , N. , Bohn , I. , Reynaud , C. , Galvez , A. and Rouzaud , J. N. 1998 . Nanoparticles produced by laser pyrolysis of hydrocarbons: analogy with carbon cosmic dust . Astron. Astrophys. , 330 : 1127 – 1135 .
  • Scott , A. , Duley , W. W. and Pinho , G. P. 1997 . Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fullerenes as decomposition products of hydrogenated amorphous carbon . Astrophys. J. , 489 : L193 – L195 .
  • Bohme , D. K. 1992 . PAH and fullerene ions and ion/molecule reactions in interstellar and circumstellar chemistry . Chem. Rev. , 92 : 1487 – 1508 .
  • Petrie , S. , Javahery , G. and Bohme , D. K. 1993 . Experimental results for ion‐molecule reactions of fullerenes—implications for interstellar and circumstellar chemistry . Astron. Astrophys. , 271 : 662 – 674 .
  • Petrie , S. and Bohme , D. K. 1994 . Generation and hydrogenation of adjacent‐pentagon fullerenes—astrochemical considerations . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 268 : 938 – 942 .
  • Petrie , S. and Bohme , D. K. 1994 . Formation and charge‐separation reactions of large molecular dications within interstellar clouds—consequences for cold cloud chemical evolution . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. , 268 : 103 – 108 .
  • Petrie , S. and Bohme , D. K. 2000 . Laboratory studies of ion/molecule reactions of fullerenes: chemical derivatization of fullerenes within dense interstellar clouds and circumstellar shells . Astrophys. J. , 540 : 869 – 885 .
  • Heymann , D. 1986 . “ Buckminsterfullerene C60 and siblings: their deduced properties as traps for inert gas atoms ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XVII 337 – 338 . Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Lewis , R. S. , Ming , T. , Wacker , J. F. , Anders , E. and Steel , E. 1987 . Interstellar diamonds in meteorites . Nature , 326 : 160 – 162 .
  • Heymann , D. 1991 . On the chemical attack of fullerene, soot, graphite, and sulfur with hot perchloric acid . Carbon , 29 : 684 – 685 .
  • Heymann , D. and Chibante , F. 1993 . Reaction of C60, C70, C76, C78 and C84 with ozone at 23.5°C . Recl. Trav. Chim. Pays‐Bas , 112 : 639 – 642 .
  • Becker , L. , Bunch , T. E. and Allamandola , L. J. 1999 . Higher fullerenes in the Allende meteorite . Nature , 400 : 227 – 228 .
  • Becker , L. , Bada , J. L. and Bunch , T. E. 1995 . “ PAH's, fullerenes and fulleranes in the Allende meteorite ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXVI 423 – 424 . Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Becker , L. and Bunch , T. E. 1997 . Fullerenes, fulleranes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Allende meteorite . Meteoritics Planet. Sci. , 32 : 479 – 487 .
  • Becker , L. , Poreda , R. J. and Bunch , T. E. 2000a . “ Fullerenes and noble gases in the Murchison and Allende meteorites ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXXI Vol. 1803 , Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute . (CD ROM)
  • Becker , L. , Poreda , R. J. and Bunch , T. E. 2000 . Fullerenes: an extraterrestrial carbon carrier phase for noble gases . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 97 : 2997 – 2983 .
  • Wieler , R. , Anders , E. , Baur , H. , Lewis , R. S. and Signer , P. 1991 . Noble gases in “phase Q”: Closed‐system etching of an Allende residue . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 55 : 1709 – 1722 .
  • Smith , P. P.K. and Buseck , P. 1980 . High resolution transmission electron microscopy of an Allende acid residue . Meteoritics , 15 : 368 – 369 .
  • Smith , P. P.K. and Buseck , P. 1981 . Graphitic carbon in the Allende meteorite: a microstructural study . Science , 212 : 322 – 324 .
  • Vis , R. D. , Mrowiec , A. , Kooyman , P. J. , Matsubara , K. and Heymann , D. 2002 . Microscopic search for the carrier phase Q of the trapped planetary noble gases in Allende, Leoville, and Vigarano . Meteoritics Planet. Sci. , 37 : 1391 – 1400 .
  • Taylor , R. , Langley , G. J. , Kroto , H. W. and Walton , D. R.M. 1993 . Formation of C60 by pyrolysis of naphthalene . Nature , 366 : 728 – 731 .
  • Sarobe , M. , Fokkens , R. H. , Cleij , T. J. , Jenneskens , L. W. , Nibbering , N. M.M. , Stas , W. and Versluis , C. 1999 . S8‐mediated cyclotrimerization of 4,5‐dihydrobenz[1]acephenanthrylene:trinaphtodecacyclene (C60H30) isomers and their propensity towards cyclodehydrogenation . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 313 : 31 – 39 .
  • Sarobe , M. 1998 . Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons under High Temperature Conditions Utrecht, , The Netherlands : Utrecht University . Ph.D. Dissertation
  • Boorum , M. M. , Vasil'ev , Y. V. , Drewello , T. and Scott , L. T. 2001 . Groundwork for rational synthesis of C60: cyclodehydrogenation of a C60H30 polyarene . Science , 294 : 828 – 831 .
  • Gómez‐Lor , B. , Koper , C. , Fokkens , R. H. , Vlietstra , E. J. , Cleij , T. J. , Jenneskens , L. W. , Nibbering , N. M.M. and Echavarren , A. M. 2002 . Zipping up the ‘crushed fullerene’ C60H30: C60 by fifteen intramolecular H2 losses . Chem. Comm. , : 370 – 371 .
  • Koper , C. 2003 . Non‐Alternant Polycyclic Hydrocarbons Versus Closed Carbon Surfaces Utrecht, , The Netherlands : Utrecht University . Ph.D. Dissertation
  • Koper , C. , Ruiz , M. , de Frutos , Ó. , González‐Cantalapiedra , E. , Fokkens , R. H. , Nibbering , N. M.M. , Cárdenas , D. J. , Santos , A. , Gómez‐Lor , B. , Jenneskens , L. W. and Echavarren , A. M. 2003 . Benzo[1,2‐e:4‐e′:5,6‐e″]tribenzo [1]acephenanthrylene (C60H30): a progenitor of C60. Its synthesis by palladium‐catalyzed arylation and stepwise conversion into C60 . Chem. Eur. J. , in press
  • Bajt , S. , Chapman , H. N. , Flynn , G. J. and Keller , L. P. 1996a . “ Carbon characterization in interplanetary dust particles with a scanning transmission X‐ray microscope ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXVII 57 – 58 . Houston, Texas, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Bajt , S. , Chapman , H. N. , Flynn , G. J. and Keller , L. P. A possibility of the presence of C60 in interplanetary dust particles . Abstract for the Meeting of the Meteoritical Society . Berlin.
  • Becker , L. and Poreda , R. J. 2002 . Fullerenes and interplanetary dust (IDPs) in the phanerozoic . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 66 ( 15A ) : A61
  • Radicati Di Brozolo , F. , Bunch , T. E. , Fleming , R. H. and Macklin , J. 1994 . Observation of fullerenes in an LDEF impact crater . Nature , 369 : 37 – 40 .
  • Heymann , D. , Chibante , L. P.F. , Brooks , R. R. , Wolbach , W. S. , Smit , J. , Korochantsev , A. , Nazarov , M. A. and Smalley , R. E. 1996a . “ Fullerenes of possible wildfire origin in cretaceous‐tertiary boundary sediments ” . In The Cretaceous‐Tertiary Event and Other Catastrophes in Earth History , Geological Society of America Special Paper 307 Edited by: Ryder , G. , Fastovsky , D. and Gartner , S. 453 – 464 .
  • Epstein , S. and Taylor , H. P. Jr. 1970 . The concentration and isotopic composition of hydrogen, carbon and silicon in Apollo 11 lunar rocks and minerals . Proc. Apollo 11 Lunar. Sci. Conf. , : 1085 – 1096 .
  • Friedman , I. , Gleason , J. D. and Hardcastle , K. 1970 . Water, hydrogen, deuterium, carbon and 13C content of selected lunar material . Proc. Apollo 11 Lunar Sci. Conf. , : 1103 – 1110 .
  • Kaplan , I. R. , Smith , J. W. and Ruth , E. 1970 . Carbon and sulfur concentration and isotopic composition in Apollo 11 lunar samples . Proc. Apollo 11 Lunar. Sci. Conf. , : 1317 – 1330 .
  • Moore , C. B. , Gibson , E. K. , Larimer , J. W. , Lewis , C. F. and Nichiporuk , W. 1970 . Total carbon and nitrogen abundances in Apollo 11 lunar samples and selected achondrites and basalts . Proc. Apollo 11 Lunar. Sci. Conf. , : 1375 – 1382 .
  • Zhang , B. L. , Wang , C. Z. and Ho , K. M. 1993 . Thermal disintegration of carbon fullerenes . Phys. Rev. , B 48 : 11381 – 11384 .
  • Monthioux , M. and Lavin , J. G. 1994 . The graphitizability of fullerenes and related textures . Carbon , 32 : 335 – 343 .
  • Ugarte , D. 1994 . High‐temperature behavior of “fullerene black” . Carbon , 32 : 1245 – 1248 .
  • Wan , Z. , Christian , J. F. and Anderson , S. L. 1992 . Collision energy and impact parameter dependence for endohedral complex formation, fragmentation and charge transfer (C60) . J. Chem. Phys. , 96 : 3344 – 3347 .
  • Wan , Z. , Christian , J. F. and Anderson , S. L. 1992 . Collision of Li+ and Na+ with C60 − insertion, fragmentation, and thermionic emission . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 96 : 1352 – 1355 .
  • Hveplund , P. , Andersen , L. H. , Haugen , H. K. , Lindhard , J. , Lorents , D. C. , Malhotra , R. and Ruoff , R. 1992 . Dynamical fragmentation of C60 ions . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 69 : 1915 – 1918 .
  • Busman , H. G. , Lill , T. , Reif , B. and Herterl , I. V. 1992 . Collision induced fragmentation and resilience of scattered C60 + fullerenes . Surface Sci. , 272 : 146 – 153 .
  • Volpel , R. , Hofmann , G. , Steidl , M. and Stenke , M. 1993 . Ionization and fragmentation of fullerene ions by electron impact . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 71 : 3439 – 3441 .
  • Cornett , D. S. , Amster , I. J. , Duncan , M. A. , Rao , A. M. and Eklund , P. C. 1993 . Laser desorption mass spectrometry of photopolymerized C60 films . J. Phys. Chem. , 97 : 5036 – 5039 .
  • Yamawaki , H. , Yoshida , M. , Kakudate , Y. , Usuba , S. , Yokoi , H. , Fujiwara , S. , Aoki , K. , Ruoff , R. , Malhotra , R. and Lorents , D. 1993 . Infrared study of vibrational property and polymerization of C60 and C70 under pressure . J. Phys. Chem. , 97 : 11161 – 11163 .
  • Heymann , D. 1996 . Search for fullerenes in lunar fines 10084 and 79261 . Meteoritics Planet. Sci. , 31 : 362 – 364 .
  • Buseck , P. R. , Tsipurski , S. J. and Hettich , R. 1992 . Fullerenes from the geological environment . Nature , 247 : 215 – 217 .
  • Daly , T. K. 1996 . A Search for Natural Fullerenes Using Mass Spectrometry Arizona State University . MS Thesis
  • Knell , J. E. 1999 . A Search for Fullerenes in Naturally Occurring Materials Arizona State University . MS Thesis
  • Kholodkevich , S. V. , Bekrenev , A. V. , Domroshchenkov , V. I. , Kon'kov , O. I. , Poborchii , V. V. , Terukov , E. I. and Trapeznikova , I. N. 1993 . Natural fullerenes separation from the shungite rocks of Karelia . Dokl. Akad. Nauk. , 330 : 340 – 341 .
  • Kholodkevich , S. V. , Bekrenev , A. V. , Donchenko , V. K. , Domroshchenkov , V. I. , Kon'kov , O. I. , Poborchii , V. V. , Terukov , E. I. and Trapeznikova , I. N. 1993 . Isolation of natural fullerenes from Karelian shungites . Dokl. Chem. Tech. , 238/230 : 22 – 23 .
  • Kon'kov , O. I. , Terukov , E. I. and Pfaunder , N. 1994 . Fullerenes in shungite . Phys. Solid State , 36 : 1685 – 1686 .
  • Masterov , V. F. , Chudnovski , F. A. , Kozyrev , S. V. , Zaidenberg , A. Z. , Rozhkova , N. N. , Podosenova , N. G. and Stefanovich , G. B. 1994 . Microwave absorption in fullerene‐containing shungites . Mol. Mat. , 4 : 213 – 216 .
  • Zaidenberg , A. Z. , Kovalevski , V. V. and Rozhkova , N. N. Spheroidal fullerene‐like carbon in shungite rock . Proc. Fullerenes Symposium . pp. 5 NV : Reno .
  • Zaidenberg , A. Z. , Kovalevski , V. V. , Rozhdova , N. N. and Tupolev , A. G. 1996 . Fullerene‐like structures in shungite carbon . Zh. Fiz. Khim. , 70 : 107 – 110 .
  • Zaidenberg , A. Z. , Rozhdova , N. N. , Kovalevski , V. V. , Lorents , D. C. and Chevallier , J. 1996 . Physical chemical model of fullerene‐like shungite carbon . Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. , C8 : 107 – 110 .
  • Davydov , Y. V. , Kon'kov , O. I. and Terukov , E. I. On the existence of fullerenes in shungite rock . International Symposium on Carbonaceous Formations and Geologic History . pp. 42 Petrozavodsk, , Russia
  • Parthasarathy , G. , Srinivasan , R. , Vairamani , M. , Ravikumar , K. and Kunwar , A. C. 1998 . Occurrence of natural fullerenes in low grade metamorphosed proterozoic shungite from Karelia, Russia . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 62 : 3541 – 3544 .
  • Gu , Y. , Wilson , M. A. , Fisher , K. J. , Dance , I. G. , Willett , G. D. , Ren , D. and Volkova , I. B. 1995 . Fullerenes and shungite . Carbon , 33 : 862 – 863 .
  • Heymann , D. 1995 . Search for ancient fullerenes in anthraxolite, shungite, and thucholite . Carbon , 33 : 237 – 239 .
  • Ebbesen , T. W. , Hiura , H. , Hennenquist , J. W. , Deronde , C. E.J. , Andersen , A. , Ofte , M. and Melezhik , V. A. 1995 . Origins of fullerenes in rocks . Science , 268 : 1634 – 1645 .
  • Buseck , P. R. , Tsipurski , S. J. and Hettich , R. 1995 . Origins of fullerenes in rocks. Reply to Comment . Science , 268 : 1634 – 1635 .
  • Buseck , P. R. , Galdobina , L. P. , Kovalevski , V. V. , Rozhkova , N. N. , Valley , J. W. and Zaidenberg , A. Z. 1997 . Shungites: the C‐rich rocks of Karelia, Russia . Can. Mineral. , 35 : 1363 – 1378 .
  • Amato , I. 1992 . A first sighting of buckyballs in the wild . Science , 257 : 167
  • Kovalevski , V. V. , Buseck , P. R. and Cowley , J. M. 2001 . Comparison of carbon in shungite rocks to other natural carbons: An X‐ray and TEM study . Carbon , 39 : 243 – 256 .
  • Jehlička , J. and Rouzaud , J. N. 1992 . Glass‐like carbon‐new type of natural carbonaceous matter from Precambrian rocks . Carbon , 30 : 1133 – 1134 .
  • Reznikov , V. A. and Polekhovskii , Y. S. 2000 . Amorphous shungite carbon: a natural medium for the formation of fullerenes . Tech. Phys. Lett. , 26 : 689 – 693 .
  • Oberlin , A. 1989 . “ High‐resolution TEM studies of carbonization and graphitization ” . In Chemistry and Physics of Carbon Edited by: Thrower , P. A. Vol. 22 , 1 – 144 . New York : Marcel Dekker .
  • Oberlin , A. 2002 . Pyrocarbons . Carbon , 40 : 7 – 24 .
  • Berezkin , V. I. 2001 . Genesis of Karelian shungite with reference to its distinctive structural features . Geochem. Intern. , 39 : 220 – 227 .
  • Zaidenberg , A. Z. , Rozhkova , N. N. , Kovalevski , V. V. and Tupolev , A. G. 1998 . Shungite carbon and fullerenes . Fullerene Sci. Techn. , 6 : 511 – 517 .
  • Gómez‐Lor , B. , de Frutos , Ó and Echavarren , A. M. 1999 . Synthesis of ‘crushed fullerene’ C60H30 . Chem. Commun. , : 2431 – 2432 .
  • Heymann , D. , Jenneskens , L. W. , Jehlička , J. , Koper , C. and Vlietstra , E. J. 2003 . Biogenic Fullerenes? . Int. J. Astrobiology , 2 ( 2 )
  • Becker , L. , Bada , J. L. , Winans , R. E. , Bunch , T. E. and French , B. M. 1994 . Fullerenes in the 1.85‐billion‐year‐old Sudbury impact structure . Science , 265 : 642 – 645 .
  • Krogh , T. E. , Davis , D. W. and Corfu , F. 1984 . “ Precision U‐Pb zircon and baddeleyite ages for the Sudbury area ” . In The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure Edited by: Pye , E. G. , Naldrett , A. J. and Giblin , P. E. Vol. 1 , 431 – 446 . Ontario Geologic Survey .
  • Corfu , F. and Lightfoot , P. C. 1996 . U‐Pb geochronology of the sublayer environment, Sudbury igneous complex, Ontario . Economic Geol. , 91 : 1263 – 1269 .
  • Peredery , W. V. and Morrison , G. G. 1984 . “ Discussion of the origin of the Sudbury structure ” . In The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure Edited by: Pye , E. G. , Naldrett , A. J. and Giblin , P. E. Vol. 1 , 491 – 511 . Ontario Geologic Survey .
  • Dressler , B. O. , Morrison , G. G. , Peredery , W. V. and Rao , B. V. 1987 . “ The Sudbury structure, Ontario, Canada‐a review ” . In Research in Terrestrial Impact Structures Edited by: Pohl , J. 39 – 68 . Braunschweig, , Germany : Viehweg & Sohn .
  • Grieve , R. A.F. , Stoeffler , D. and Deutsch , A. 1991 . The Sudbury structure: controversial or misunderstood? . J. Geophys. Res. , 96 : 22753 – 22764 .
  • Muir , T. L. and Peredery , W. V. 1984 . “ The Onaping formation ” . In The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure Edited by: Pye , E. G. , Naldrett , A. J. and Giblin , P. E. Vol. 1 , 130 – 210 . Ontario Geologic Survey .
  • Rousell , D. H. 1984 . “ Onwatin and Chelmsford formations ” . In The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure Edited by: Pye , E. G. , Naldrett , A. J. and Giblin , P. E. Vol. 1 , 211 – 217 . Ontario Geologic Survey .
  • Rousell , D. H. 1984 . “ Mineralization in the whitewater group ” . In The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure Edited by: Pye , E. G. , Naldrett , A. J. and Giblin , P. E. Vol. 1 , 219 – 232 . Ontario Geologic Survey .
  • Becker , L. , Poreda , R. J. and Bada , J. L. 1996 . Extraterrestrial helium trapped in fullerenes in the Sudbury impact structure . Science , 272 : 249 – 252 .
  • Heymann , D. , Dressler , B. O. , Knell , J. , Thiemens , M. H. , Buseck , P. R. , Dunbar , R. B. and Mucciarone , D. 1999 . “ Origin of carbonaceous matter, fullerenes, and elemental sulfur in rocks of the Whitewater Group, Sudbury impact structure, Ontario, Canada ” . In Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution II , Special Paper 339 Edited by: Dressler , B. O. and Sharption , V. L. 345 – 360 . Geological Society of America .
  • Stevenson , J. S. 1972 . “ The Onaping ash‐flow sheet, Sudbury, Ontario ” . In New Developments of Sudbury Geology , Special Paper Number 10 Edited by: Guy‐Bray . 41 – 48 . Geological Association of Canada .
  • Avermann , M. E. 1997 . “ Investigations on the green member of the Onaping formation, Sudbury structure, Ontario, Canada ” . In Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution , LPI Contribution No. 922 Edited by: Dressler , B. O. and Sharpton , V. L. 4 – 5 . Houston, Texas, , USA : The Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Stöffler , D. , Deutsch , A. , Avermann , M. , Bischoff , L. , Brockmeyer , P. , Buhl , D. , Lakomy , R. and Möller‐Mohr , V. 1994 . “ The formation of the Sudbury structure, Canada: toward a unified impact model ” . In Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution II , Special Paper No. 293 Edited by: Dressler , B. O. and Sharpton , V. L. 308 – 318 . Geologic Society of America .
  • Heymann , D. 1996 . Solubility of C60 and C70 in seven normal alcohols and their deduced solubility in water . Fullerene Sci. Technol. , 4 : 509 – 515 .
  • Jehlička , J. , Ozawa , M. , Slanina , Z. and Osawa , E. 2000 . Fullerenes in solid bitumens from pillow lavas of Precambrian age (Mitov, Bohemian Massiv) . Fullerene Sci. Techn. , 8 : 449 – 4523 .
  • Qiu , J. S. , Yang , Z. G. , Wang , N. L. , Zhang , F. , Tsang , S. C. and Harris , P. J.S. 2000 . Preparation of fullerenes from several Chinese coals . Mol. Mater. , 13 : 377 – 384 .
  • Fang , P. H. and Wong , R. 1997 . Evidence for fullerene in a coal of Yunnan, Southwest China . Mater. Res. Innov. , 1 : 130 – 132 .
  • Alvarez , L. , Alvarez , W. , Asaro , F. and Michel , H. V. 1980 . Extraterrestrial cause for the cretaceous/tertiary extinction . Science , 208 : 1095 – 1108 .
  • Cornejo Toledo , A. and Hernandez Osuna , A. 1950 . Las anomalias gravimetricas en la cuenca salina del istmo, planicie costera de Tabasco, Campeche y Peninsula de Yucatan . Boletín de la Asociación Mexicana de Geólogos Petroleros , 2 : 435 – 460 .
  • Hildebrand , A. R. , Penfield , G. T. , Kring , D. A. , Pilkington , M. , Jacobsen , S. and Boynton , W. V. 1991 . The Chicxulub crater: A possible cretaceous‐tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico . Geology , 19 : 867 – 871 .
  • Wolbach , W. S. , Lewis , R. S. and Anders , E. 1985 . Cretaceous extinctions: evidence for wildfires and search for meteoritic material . Science , 230 : 167 – 170 .
  • Wolbach , W. S. , Gilmour , I. , Anders , E. , Orth , C. J. and Brooks , R. R. 1988 . Global fire at the cretaceous/tertiary boundary . Nature , 334 : 665 – 669 .
  • Wolbach , W. S. , Gilmour , I. and Anders , E. 1990 . “ Major wildfires at the cretaceous/tertiary boundary ” . In Global Catastrophes in Earth History; An Interdisciplinary Conference on Impacts, Volcanism, and Mass Mortality , Special Paper 247 Edited by: Sharpton , V. L. and Ward , P. D. 391 – 400 . Geological Society of America .
  • Anders , E. , Wolbach , W. S. and Lewis , R. S. 1986 . Cretaceous extinctions and wildfires . Science , 234 : 261 – 264 .
  • Anders , E. , Wolbach , W. S. and Gilmour , I. 1991 . “ Major wildfires at the cretaceous/tertiary boundary ” . In Global Biomass Burning Edited by: Levine , J. S. 485 – 492 . Cambridge, Mass. : The MIT Press .
  • Gilmour , I. , Wolbach , W. S. and Anders , E. 1990 . “ Major wildfires at the cretaceous/tertiary boundary ” . In Catastrophes and Evolution: Astronomical Foundations Edited by: Clube , S. V.M. 195 – 213 . Cambridge, GB : Cambridge University Press .
  • Howard , J. B. , Mckinnon , J. T. , Makarovsky , Y. , Lafleur , A. L. and Johnson , M. E. 1991 . Fullerenes C60 and C70 in flames . Nature , 352 : 139 – 141 .
  • Howard , J. B. 1992 . “ Fullerenes formation in flames ” . In Twenty‐Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion 933 – 946 . The Combustion Institute .
  • Pope , C. J. , Marr , J. A. and Howard , J. B. 1993 . Chemistry of fullerenes C60 and C70 formation in flames . J. Phys. Chem. , 97 : 11001 – 11013 .
  • Heymann , D. , Wolbach , W. S. , Chibante , L. P.F. and Smalley , R. E. 1994a . “ Search for extractable fullerenes in clays from the KT boundary of the Woodside Creek and Flaxbourne river sites, New Zealand ” . In New Developments Regarding the KT Event and Other Catastrophes in Earth History , LPI Contribution 825 47 – 48 . Houston : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Heymann , D. , Chibante , L. P.F. , Brooks , R. R. , Wolbach , W. S. and Smalley , R. E. 1994 . Fullerenes in the K/T boundary layer . Science , 265 : 645 – 647 .
  • Heymann , D. , Wolbach , W. S. , Chibante , L. P.F. , Brooks , R. R. and Smalley , R. E. 1994 . Search for extractable fullerenes in clays from the cretaceous/tertiary boundary of the Woodside Creek and Flaxbourne River sites, New Zealand . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 58 : 3531 – 3534 .
  • Heymann , D. , Chibante , L. P.F. and Smalley , R. E. 1995 . Determination of C60 and C70 fullerenes in geologic materials by high performance liquid chromatography . J. Chrom. A , 689 : 157 – 163 .
  • Heymann , D. , Nazarov , M. A. , Korochantsev , A. and Smit , J. 1995 . “ The Chicxulub event: did it produce a global layer of fullerene‐bearing sediments? ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXVI 597 – 598 . Houston, Texas, , USA : The Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Heymann , D. , Korochantsev , A. , Nazarov , M. A. and Smit , J. 1996 . Search for fullerenes C60 and C70 in cretaceous‐tertiary boundary sediments from Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Austria, and Denmark . Cretaceous Geology , 17 : 367 – 380 .
  • Heymann , D. , Yancey , T. E. , Wolbach , W. S. , Johnson , E. A. , Roach , D. and Moecker , S. 1997 . “ Carbon in sediments at the KT boundary site of the Brazos River, Texas ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXVIII 567 – 568 . Houston, Texas, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Heymann , D. , Yancey , T. E. , Wolbach , W. S. , Thiemens , M. H. , Johnson , E. A. , Roach , D. and Moecker , S. 1998 . Geochemical markers of the cretaceous‐tertiary boundary event at Brazos river, Texas, USA . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 62 : 173 – 181 .
  • Becker , L. and Bada , J. L. 1995 . “ Fullerenes in the K/T boundary: are they a result of global wildfires? ” . In Lunar and Planetary Science XXVI 85 – 86 . Houston, TX, , USA : Lunar and Planetary Institute .
  • Taylor , R. and Abdul‐Sada , A. K. 2000 . There are no fullerenes in the K‐T boundary layer . Fullerene Sci. Techn. , 8 : 47 – 54 .
  • Chijiwa , T. , Arai , T. , Sugai , T. , Shinohara , H. , Kumazawa , M. , Takano , M. and Kawakami , S. 1999 . Fullerenes found in the Permo‐Triassic mass extinction period . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 26 : 767 – 770 .
  • Becker , L. , Poreda , R. J. , Hunt , A. G. , Bunch , T. E. and Rampino , M. 2001 . Impact event at the Permian–Triassic boundary: evidence from extraterrestrial noble gases in fullerenes . Science , 291 : 1530 – 1533 .
  • Braun , T. , Osawa , E. , Detre , C. and Toth , I. 2001 . On some analytical aspects of the determination of fullerenes in samples from the Permian/Triassic boundary layers . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 348 : 361 – 362 .
  • Farley , K. A. and Mukhopdhyay , S. 2001 . An extraterrestrial impact at the Permian–Triassic boundary? . Science , 293 : 2343
  • Isozaki , Y. 2001 . An extraterrestrial impact at the Permian–Triassic boundary? . Science , 293 : 2343
  • Becker , L. and Poreda , R. J. 2001 . An extraterrestrial impact at the Permian–Triassic boundary? . A reply Science , 293 : 2343
  • Daly , T. K. , Buseck , P. R. , Williams , P. and Lewis , C. F. 1993 . Fullerenes from a fulgurite . Science , 259 : 1599 – 1601 .
  • Osawa , E. , Hirose , Y. , Kimura , A. , Shibuya , M. , Gu , Z. and Li , F. M. 1997 . Fullerenes in Chinese ink. A correction . Fullerene Sci. Techn. , 5 : 177 – 194 .
  • Osawa , E. , Hirose , Y. , Kimura , A. , Shibuya , M. , Kato , M. and Takezawa , H. 1997b . Seminatural occurrence of fullerenes . Fullerene Sci. Techn. , 5 : 1045 – 1055 .
  • Wang , Z. X. , Li , X. P. , Wang , W. M. , Xu , X. J. , Zi , C. Y. , Huang , R. B. and Zheng , L. S. 1998 . Fullerenes in the fossil of dinosaur egg . Fullerene Sci. Technol. , 6 : 715 – 720 .
  • Heymann , D. 1998 . Search for C60 fullerene in char produced on a Norway spruce by lightning . Fullerene Sci. Techn. , 6 : 1079 – 1086 .
  • Fetzer , J. C. 2000 . Large (C > 24) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 288 New York : Wiley Interscience .
  • Yoshimura , K. , Przybilla , L. , Ito , S. , Brand , J. D. , Wehmeir , M. , Räder , H. J. and Müllen , K. 2001 . Characterization of large synthetic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by MALDI‐ and LD‐TOF mass spectrometry . Macromol. Chem. Phys. , 202 : 215 – 222 .
  • Rose , H. R. , Dance , I. G. , Fisher , K. J. , Smith , D. R. , Willett , G. D. and Wilson , M. A. 1993 . Calcium inside C60 and C70 from coorongite, a precursor of torbanite . J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , : 941 – 942 .
  • Rose , H. R. , Dance , I. G. , Fisher , K. J. , Smith , D. R. , Willett , G. D. and Wilson , M. A. 1994 . From green algae to calcium inside buckyballs . Org. Mass Spectrom. , 29 : 470 – 474 .
  • Fisher , K. , Largeau , C. and Derenne , S. 1996 . Can oil shales be used to produce fullerenes? . Org. Geochem. , 24 : 715 – 723 .
  • Crowley , C. , Taylor , R. , Kroto , H. W. , Walton , D. R.M. , Cheng , P. C. and Scott , L. T. 1996 . Pyrolytic production of fullerenes . Synth. Metals , 77 : 17 – 22 .
  • Sarobe , M. , Kwint , H. C. , Fleer , T. , Havenith , R. W.A. , Jenneskens , L. W. , Vlietstra , E. J. , van Lenthe , J. H. and Wesseling , M. 1999 . Flash vacuum thermolysis of acenaphtol[1,2‐a]acenaphtylene, fluoranthene, benzo[k]‐ and benzo[j]fluoranthene‐homolytic scission of carbon–carbon single bonds of internally fused cyclopenta moieties at T> = 1100 degrees C . European J. Org. Chem. , : 1191 – 1200 .
  • Mukhopadhyay , K. , Krishna , K. M. and Sharon , M. 1994 . Fullerenes from camphor: a natural source . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 72 : 3182 – 3185 .
  • Avermann , M. E. 1994 . “ Origin of the polymict, allochtonous breccias of the Onaping formation, Sudbury structure, Ontario, Canada ” . In Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution , Special Paper 293 Edited by: Dressler , B. O. , Grieve , R. A.F. and Sharpton , V. L. 264 – 267 . Geological Society of America .
  • Melezhik , V. A. , Fallick , A. E. , Filippov , M. M. and Larsen , O. 1999 . Karelian shungite—an indication of 2.0‐Ga‐old metamorphosed oil‐shale and generation of petroleum: geology, lithology and geochemistry . Earth Sci. Rev. , 47 : 1 – 40 .
  • Pouba , Z. and Kribek , B. 1986 . Organic matter and the concentration of metals in Precambrian stratiform deposits of the Bohemian massif . Precambrian Res. , 33 : 225 – 237 .
  • Kannenberg , E. L. and Poralla , K. 1999 . Hopanoid biosynthesis and function in bacteria . Naturwissenschaften , 86 : 168 – 176 .
  • Simoneit , B. R.T. 1990 . Petroleum generation, an easy and widespread process in hydrothermal systems; an overview . Applied Geochem. , 5 : 3 – 15 .
  • Miller , J. D.A. 1962 . “ Fats and steroids ” . In Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae Edited by: Levin , R. A. 357 – 370 . New York : Academic Press .
  • Osawa , E. 1999 . Natural fullerenes—Will they offer a hint to the selective synthesis of fullerenes? . Fullerene Sci. Technol. , 7 : 637 – 652 .
  • “ Standard Reference Materials Program: SRM Catalog Table 109.2 ” . Gaithersburg, MD, , USA : National Institute of Standards and Technology .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.