Diagnosing Mild Cognitive Impairment as a Precursor to Dementia: Fact or Fallacy?

References

• Ahmed, S., Mitchell, J., Arnold, R., Nestor, P. J., & Hodges, J. R. (2008). Predicting rapid clinical progression in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 25, 170–177. doi:10.1159/000113014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert, M. S., Dekosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., … Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging‐Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers & Dementia, 7(3), 270–279. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert, M. S., Moss, M., Blacker, D., Tanzi, R., & Mcardle, J. J. (2007). Longitudinal change in cognitive performance among individuals with mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychology, 21(2), 158–169. doi:10.1037/0894‐4105.21.2.158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexopoulos, P., Grimmer, T., Perneczky, R., Domes, G., & Kurz, A. (2006). Progression to dementia in clinical subtypes of mild cognitive impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 22(1), 27–34. doi:10.1159/000093101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alladi, S., Arnold, R., Mitchell, J., Nestor, P. J., & Hodges, J. R. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment: Applicability of research criteria in a memory clinic and characterisation of cognitive profile. Psychological Medicine, 36, 507–515. doi:10.1017/S0033291705006744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Arnaiz, E., & Almkvist, O. (2003). Neuropsychological features of mild cognitive impairment and preclinical Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 107(s179), 34–41. doi:10.1034/j.1600‐0404.107.s179.7.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Artero, S., Petersen, R., Touchon, J., & Ritchie, K. (2006). Revised criteria for mild cognitive impairment: Validation within a longitudinal population study. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 22(5–6), 465–470. doi:10.1159/000096287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belleville, S., Gauthier, S., Lepage, E., Kergoat, M. J., & Gilbert, B. (2014). Predicting decline in mild cognitive impairment: A prospective cognitive study. Neuropsychology, 28(4), 643–652. doi:10.1037/neu0000063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisiacchi, P. S., Borella, E., Bergamaschi, S., Carretti, B., & Mondini, S. (2008). Interplay between memory and executive functions in normal and pathological aging. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30(6), 723–733. doi:10.1080/13803390701689587
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bondi, M. W., Jak, A. J., Delano‐wood, L., Jacobson, M. W., Delis, D. C., & Salmon, D. P. (2008). Neuropsychological contributions to the early detection of Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology Review, 18(1), 73–90. doi:10.1007/s11065‐008‐9054‐1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bozoki, A., Giordani, B., Heidebrink, J. L., Berent, S., & Foster, N. L. (2001). Mild cognitive impairments predict dementia in nondemented elderly patients with memory loss. Archives of Neurology, 58(3), 411–416. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.3.411
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brandt, J., Aretouli, E., Neijstrom, E., Samek, J., Manning, K., Albert, M. S., & Bandeen‐roche, K. (2009). Selectivity of executive deficits in mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychology, 23(5), 607–618. doi:10.1037/a0015851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodaty, H., Heffernan, M., Kochan, N. A., Draper, B., Trollor, J. N., Reppermund, S., … Sachdev, P. S. (2013). Mild cognitive impairment in a community sample: The Sydney Memory and Ageing Study. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 9(3), 310–317, e311. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.11.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. L., Iverson, G. L., Holdnack, J. A., & Feldman, H. H. (2008). Potential for misclassification of mild cognitive impairment: A study of memory scores on the Wechsler Memory Scale‐III in healthy older adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(3), 463–478. doi:10.1017/S1355617708080521
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. L., Iverson, G. L., & White, T. (2007). Substantial risk of “accidental MCI” in healthy older adults: Base rates of low memory scores in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(3), 490–500. doi:10.1017/S1355617707070531
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busse, A., Hensel, A., Gühne, U., Angermeyer, M. C., & Riedel‐heller, S. G. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment: Long‐term course of four clinical subtypes. Neurology, 67(12), 2176–2185. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000249117.23318.e1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, L. R., Delano‐wood, L., Libon, D. J., Mcdonald, C. R., Nation, D. A., Bangen, K. J., … Bondi, M. W. (2013). Are empirically‐derived subtypes of mild cognitive impairment consistent with conventional subtypes? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19(06), 635–645. doi:10.1017/S1355617713000313
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crook, T., Bartus, R. T., Ferris, S. H., Whitehouse, P., Cohen, G. D., & Gershon, S. (1986). Age‐associated memory impairment: Proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change—Report of a national institute of mental health work group. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2(4), 261–276. doi:10.1080/87565648609540348
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crumley, J. J., Stetler, C. A., & Horhota, M. (2014). Examining the relationship between subjective and objective memory performance in older adults: A meta‐analysis. Psychology and Aging, 29(2), 250–263. doi:10.1037/a0035908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuetos, F., Arango‐lasprilla, J. C., Uribe, C., Valencia, C., & Lopera, F. (2007). Linguistic changes in verbal expression: A preclinical marker of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(3), 433–439. doi:10.1017/s1355617707070609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jager, C. A., & Budge, M. M. (2005). Stability and predictability of the classification of mild cognitive impairment as assessed by episodic memory test performance over time. Neurocase: Case Studies in Neuropsychology, Neuropsychiatry, and Behavioural Neurology, 11(1), 72–79. doi:10.1080/13554790490896820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devanand, D. P., Folz, M., Gorlyn, M., Moeller, J. R., & Stern, Y. (1997). Questionable dementia: Clinical course and predictors of outcome. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 45(3), 321–328. doi:10.1111/j.1532‐5415.1997.tb00947.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diniz, B. S., Nunes, P. V., Yassuda, M. S., Pereira, F. S., Flaks, M. K., Viola, L. F., … Forlenza, O. V. (2008). Mild cognitive impairment: Cognitive screening or neuropsychological assessment? Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria, 30(4), 316–321. doi:10.1590/S1516‐44462008000400003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edmonds, E. C., Delano‐wood, L., Clark, L. R., Jak, A. J., Nation, D. A., Mcdonald, C. R., … Bondi, M. W. (2015). Susceptibility of the conventional criteria for mild cognitive impairment to false‐positive diagnostic errors. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 11(4), 415–424. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2014.03.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edmonds, E. C., Delano‐wood, L., Galasko, D. R., Salmon, D. P., & Bondi, M. W. (2014). Subjective cognitive complaints contribute to misdiagnosis of mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(8), 836–847. doi:10.1017/S135561771400068X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, P., Jungwirth, S., Zehetmayer, S., Weissgram, S., Hoenigschnabl, S., Gelpi, E., … Tragl, K. H. (2007). Conversion from subtypes of mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer dementia. Neurology, 68(4), 288–291. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000252358.03285.9d
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flicker, C., Ferris, S. H., & Reisberg, B. (1991). Mild cognitive impairment in the elderly: Predictors of dementia. Neurology, 41(7), 1006–1009. doi:10.1212/WNL.41.7.1006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forlenza, O. V., Diniz, B. S., Nunes, P. V., Memória, C. M., Yassuda, M. S., & Gattaz, W. F. (2009). Diagnostic transitions in mild cognitive impairment subtypes. International Psychogeriatrics, 21(06), 1088–1095. doi:10.1017/S1041610209990792
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavett, B. E., Poon, S. J., Ozonoff, A. L., Jefferson, A. L., Nair, A. K., Green, R. C., & Stern, R. A. (2009). Diagnostic utility of the NAB List Learning test in Alzheimer's disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(01), 121–129. doi:10.1017/S1355617708090176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golomb, J., Kluger, A., & Ferris, S. H. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment: Historical development and summary of research. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 6(4), 351–367. Retrieved from http://www.dialogues‐cns.org/pdf/DialoguesClinNeurosci‐6‐351.pdf
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grober, E., Hall, C. B., Lipton, R. B., Zonderman, A. B., Resnick, S. M., & Kawas, C. (2008). Memory impairment, executive dysfunction, and intellectual decline in preclinical Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(02), 266–278. doi:10.1017/S1355617708080302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, J. W., Kim, T. H., Lee, S. B., Park, J. H., Lee, J. J., Huh, Y., … Kim, K. W. (2012). Predictive validity and diagnostic stability of mild cognitive impairment subtypes. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 8(6), 553–559. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jessen, F., Wiese, B., Cvetanovska, G., Fuchs, A., Kaduszkiewicz, H., Koelsch, H., … Riedel‐heller, S. G. (2007). Patterns of subjective memory impairment in the elderly: Association with memory performance. Psychological Medicine, 37(12), 1753–1762. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorm, A., Christensen, H., Korten, A., Jacomb, P., & Henderson, A. (2001). Memory complaints as a precursor of memory impairment in older people: A longitudinal analysis over 7–8 years. Psychological Medicine, 31(03), 441–449.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jungwirth, S., Zehetmayer, S., Hinterberger, M., Tragl, K. H., & Fischer, P. (2012). The validity of amnestic MCI and non‐amnestic MCI at age 75 in the prediction of Alzheimer's dementia and vascular dementia. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(06), 959–966. doi:10.1017/S1041610211002870
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klekociuk, S. Z., Summers, J. J., Vickers, J. C., & Summers, M. J. (2014). Reducing false positive diagnoses in mild cognitive impairment: The importance of comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. European Journal of Neurology, 21, 1330–1336. doi:10.1111/ene.12488
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klekociuk, S. Z., & Summers, M. J. (2013). The self‐fulfilling prophecy of episodic memory impairment in mild cognitive impairment: Do episodic memory deficits identified at classification remain evident when later examined with different memory tests? Neurology Research International, 2013, 437013. doi:10.1155/2013/437013
   Google Scholar
• Kral, V. A. (1962). Senescent forgetfulness: Benign and malignant. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 86, 257–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenehan, M. E., Klekociuk, S. Z., & Summers, M. J. (2012). Absence of a relationship between subjective memory complaint and objective memory impairment in mild cognitive impairment (MCI): Is it time to abandon subjective memory complaint as an MCI diagnostic criterion? International Psychogeriatrics, 24(09), 1505–1514. doi:10.1017/S1041610212000695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, R. (1994). Aging‐associated cognitive decline. International Psychogeriatrics, 6(01), 63–68. doi:10.1017/S1041610294001626
   Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, D. A., Greig, M. T., Schinka, J. A., Barker, W., Shen, Q., Potter, E., … Duara, R. (2012). An investigation of PreMCI: Subtypes and longitudinal outcomes. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 8(3), 172–179. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonie, J. A., Herrmann, L. L., Donaghey, C. L., & Ebmeier, K. P. (2008). Clinical referral patterns and cognitive profile in mild cognitive impairment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 59–64. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.035642
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mckhann, G. M., Knopman, D. S., Chertkow, H., Hyman, B. T., Jack, C. R. Jr., Kawas, C. H., … Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging‐Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers & Dementia, 7(3), 263–269. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milwain, E. (2000). Mild cognitive impairment: Further caution. The Lancet, 355, 1018. doi:10.1016/S0140‐6736(05)74764‐4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, A. J., & Shiri‐feshki, M. (2009). Rate of progression of mild cognitive impairment to dementia—meta‐analysis of 41 robust inception cohort studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 119(4), 252–265. doi:10.1111/j.1600‐0447.2008.01326.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panza, F., Capurso, C., D'introno, A., Colacicco, A. M., Capurso, A., & Solfrizzi, V. (2007). Heterogeneity of mild cognitive impairment and other predementia syndromes in progression to dementia. Neurobiology of Aging, 28, 1631–1632. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.07.019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C. (2000). Mild cognitive impairment or questionable dementia? Archives of Neurology, 57(5), 643–644. doi:10.1001/archneur.62.7.1160
   Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183–194. doi:10.1111/j.1365‐2796.2004.01388.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., Doody, R., Kurz, A., Mohs, R., Morris, J. C., Rabins, P. V., … Winblad, B. (2001). Current concepts in mild cognitive impairment. Archives of Neurology, 58(12), 1985–1992. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.12.1985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., Kokmen, E., Tangalos, E., Ivnik, R. J., & Kurland, L. T. (1990). Mayo clinic Alzheimer's disease patient registry. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 2(4), 408–415. doi:10.1007/BF03323961
   Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., & Morris, J. C. (2005). Mild cognitive impairment as a clinical entity and treatment target. Archives of Neurology, 62(7), 1160–1163. doi:10.1001/archneur.62.7.1160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., & O'brien, J. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment should be considered for DSM‐V. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 19(3), 147–154. doi:10.1177/0891988706291085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., Schaid, D. J., Thibodeau, S. N., … Kurland, L. T. (1995). Apolipoprotein E status as a predictor of the development of Alzheimer's disease in memory‐impaired individuals. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 273(16), 1274–1278. doi:10.1001/jama.1995.03520400044042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Kokmen, E., & Tangelos, E. G. (1997). Aging, memory, and mild cognitive impairment. International Psychogeriatrics, 9(Suppl. 1), 65–69. doi:10.1017/S1041610297004717
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999). Mild cognitive impairment: Clinical characterization and outcome. Archives of Neurology, 56(3), 303–308. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2009.266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapp, M. A., & Reischies, F. M. (2005). Attention and executive control predict Alzheimer disease in late life: Results from the Berlin Aging Study (BASE). American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13(2), 134–141. doi:10.1176/appi.ajgp.13.2.134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie, K. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment: An epidemiological perspective. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 6(4), 401–408. doi:10.1201/b13196‐46
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sachdev, P. S., Blacker, D., Blazer, D. G., Ganguli, M., Jeste, D. V., Paulsen, J. S., & Petersen, R. C. (2014). Classifying neurocognitive disorders: The DSM‐5 approach. Nature Reviews Neurology, 10, 634–642. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2014.181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, N. L. J., & Summers, M. J. (2010). Attention and working memory deficits in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(4), 350–357. doi:10.1080/13803390903042379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, N. L. J., & Summers, M. J. (2011). Longitudinal deficits to attention, executive, and working memory in subtypes of mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychology, 25(2), 237–248. doi:10.1037/a0021134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storandt, M. (2008). Cognitive deficits in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(3), 198–202. doi:10.1111/j.1467‐8721.2008.00574.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers, M. J., & Saunders, N. L. (2012). Neuropsychological measures predict decline to Alzheimer's dementia from mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychology, 26(4), 498–508. doi:10.1037/a0028576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuokko, H., & Frerichs, R. J. (2000). Cognitive impairment with no dementia (CIND): Longitudinal studies, the findings, and the issues. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 14(4), 504–525. doi:10.1076/clin.14.4.504.7200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuokko, H., & Hultsch, D. F. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment: International perspectives. New York: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2009a). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—fourth edition (WAIS‐IV) Australian and New Zealand language adaptation: Administration and scoring manual. Sydney: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2009b). Wechsler Memory Scale—fourth edition (WMS‐IV), Australian and New Zealand language adaptation: Administration and scoring manual. Sydney: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Winblad, B., Palmer, K., Kivipelto, M., Jelic, V., Fratiglioni, L., Wahlund, L. O., … Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment: Beyond controversies, towards a consensus: Report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 240–246. doi:10.1111/j.1365‐2796.2004.01380.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar