REFERENCES
- Wertheim JO, Chu DKW, Peiris JSM et al. A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses. J Virol 2013; 87: 7039–7045.
- Woo PCY, Lau SKP, Lam CSF et al. Discovery of seven novel mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavi. J Virol 2012; 86: 3995–4008.
- Fehr AR, Perlman S. Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1282: 1–23.
- World Health Organization. WHO Director‐General's opening remarks at the mission briefing on COVID‐19. 2020. [Cited 18 Apr 2020.] Available at: https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020.
- World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) situation report – 89. 2020. [Cited 18 Apr 2020.] Available at: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200418-sitrep-89-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=3643dd38_2.
- World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2020; 2633.
- Lai THT, Tang EWH, Chau SKY et al. Stepping up infection control measures in ophthalmology during the novel coronavirus outbreak: an experience from Hong Kong. Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2020; 258: 1049–1055.
- Jones L, Walsh K, Willcox M et al. The COVID‐19 pandemic: important considerations for contact lens practitioners. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clae.2020.03.012.
- Zeri F, Naroo SA. Contact lens practice in the time of COVID‐19. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clae.2020.03.007.
- Huang C, Wang Y, Li X et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395: 497–506.
- Boileau MJ, Kapil S. Bovine coronavirus associated syndromes. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 2010; 26: 123–146.
- Hauck R, Gallardo RA, Woolcock PR et al. A coronavirus associated with runting stunting syndrome in broiler chickens. Avian Dis 2016; 60: 528–534.
- Bande F, Arshad SS, Omar AR et al. Pathogenesis and diagnostic approaches of avian infectious bronchitis. Adv Virol 2016; 2016: 4621659.
- Hök K. Demonstration of feline infectious peritonitis virus in conjunctival epithelial cells from cats. APMIS 1989; 97: 820–824.
- Van hamme E, Desmarets L, Dewerchin HL et al. Intriguing interplay between feline infectious peritonitis virus and its receptors during entry in primary feline monocytes. Virus Res 2011; 160: 32–39.
- Yan R, Zhang Y, Li Y et al. Structural basis for the recognition of SARS‐CoV‐2 by full‐length human ACE2. Science 2020; 367: 1444–1448.
- Hoffmann M, Kleine‐weber H, Schroeder S et al. SARS‐CoV‐2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 2020; 181: 271–280.
- Hoffmann M, Kleine‐weber H, Pöhlmann S. A multibasic cleavage site in the spike protein of SARS‐CoV‐2 is essential for infection of human lung cells. Cell Press 2020; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2020.04.022.
- Lang J, Yang N, Deng J et al. Inhibition of SARS pseudovirus cell entry by lactoferrin binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans. PLoS One 2011; 6: e23710.
- Shang J, Ye G, Shi K et al. Structural basis of receptor recognition by SARS‐CoV‐2. Nature 2020. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2179-y.
- Jeffers SA, Tusell SM, Gillim‐ross L et al. CD209L (L‐SIGN) is a receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101: 15748–15753.
- Shih Y‐P, Chen C‐Y, Liu S‐J et al. Identifying epitopes responsible for neutralizing antibody and DC‐SIGN binding on the spike glycoprotein of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 2006; 80: 10315–10324.
- Yang Z‐Y, Huang Y, Ganesh L et al. pH‐dependent entry of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus is mediated by the spike glycoprotein and enhanced by dendritic cell transfer through DC‐SIGN. J Virol 2004; 78: 5642–5650.
- Arabi YM, Balkhy HH, Hayden FG et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 584–594.
- Yeager CL, Ashmun RA, Williams RK et al. Human aminopeptidase N is a receptor for human coronavirus 229E. Nature 1992; 357: 420–422.
- Hulswit RJG, Lang Y, Bakkers MJG et al. Human coronaviruses OC43 and HKU1 bind to 9‐O‐acetylated sialic acids via a conserved receptor‐binding site in spike protein domain A. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116: 2681–2690.
- Milewska A, Nowak P, Owczarek K et al. Entry of human coronavirus NL63 into the cell Aleksandra. J Virol 2018; 92: e01933‐17.
- Milewska A, Zarebski M, Nowak P et al. Human coronavirus NL63 utilizes heparan sulfate proteoglycans for attachment to target cells. J Virol 2014; 88: 13221–13230.
- Cagno V, Tseligka ED, Jones ST et al. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans and viral attachment: true receptors or adaptation bias? Viruses 2019; 11: 596.
- Schwegmann‐weßels C, Herrler G. Sialic acids as receptor determinants for coronaviruses. Glycoconj J 2006; 23: 51–58.
- Sun Y, Liu L, Pan X et al. Mechanisms of the action between the SARS‐Cov S440 protein and the ACE2 receptor in eyes. Int J Ophthalmol 2006; 6: 783–786.
- Klaile E, Klassert TE, Scheffrahn I et al. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)‐related cell adhesion molecules are co‐expressed in the human lung and their expression can be modulated in bronchial epithelial cells by non‐typable Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, TLR3, and type I and II int. Respir Res 2013; 14: 85.
- Hamming I, Timens W, Bulthuis MLC et al. Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis. J Pathol 2004; 203: 631–637.
- Donaldson SH, Hirsh A, Li DC et al. Regulation of the epithelial sodium channel by serine proteases in human airways. J Biol Chem 2002; 277: 8338–8345.
- Mayer WJ, Mackert MJ, Kranebitter N et al. Distribution of antigen presenting cells in the human cornea: correlation of in vivo confocal microscopy and immunohistochemistry in different pathologic entities. Curr Eye Res 2012; 37: 1012–1018.
- Tailleux L, Pham‐thi N, Bergeron‐lafaurie A et al. DC‐SIGN induction in alveolar macrophages defines privileged target host cells for mycobacteria in patients with tuberculosis. PLoS Med 2005; 2: e381.
- Abu el‐asrar AM, Struyf S, Al‐kharashi SA et al. Expression of T lymphocyte chemoattractants and activation markers in vernal keratoconjunctivitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2002; 86: 1175–1180.
- Zou H, Zhu N, Li S. The emerging role of dipeptidyl‐peptidase‐4 as a therapeutic target in lung disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2020; 24: 147–153.
- Burton MJ, Rajak SN, Hu VH et al. Pathogenesis of progressive scarring trachoma in Ethiopia and Tanzania and its implications for disease control: two cohort studies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9: e0003763.
- Lin L, Yan S, Xin P et al. Expression of SARS coronavirus S protein functional receptor‐angiotensin‐converting enzyme 2 in human cornea and conjunctiva. Chin Ophthalmic Res 2004; 22: 561–564.
- Sun K, Gu L, Ma L et al. Atlas of ACE2 gene expression in mammals reveals novel insights in transmission of SARS‐Cov‐2. bioRxiv 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.30.015644.
- Sungnak W, Huang N, Bécavin C et al. SARS‐CoV‐2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0868-6.
- Choong PF, Mok PL, Cheong SK et al. Mesenchymal stromal cell‐like characteristics of corneal keratocytes. Cytotherapy 2007; 9: 252–258.
- Argüeso P, Sumiyoshi M. Characterization of a carbohydrate epitope defined by the monoclonal antibody H185: Sialic acid O‐acetylation on epithelial cell‐surface mucins. Glycobiology 2006; 16: 1219–1228.
- Akhtar J, Tiwari V, Oh MJ et al. HVEM and nectin‐1 are the major mediators of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV‐1) entry into human conjunctival epithelium. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: 4026–4035.
- Huang AJW, Li DQ, Li CH et al. Modulation of corneal vascularization. Ocul Surf 2005; 3: S190–S193.
- Willcox MDP. Tear film, contact lenses and tear biomarkers. Clin Exp Optom 2019; 102: 350–363.
- Kuiken T, Fouchier RAM, Schutten M et al. Newly discovered coronavirus as the primary cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet 2003; 362: 263–270.
- Lawler JV, Endy TP, Hensley LE et al. Cynomolgus macaque as an animal model for severe acute respiratory syndrome. PLoS Med 2006; 3: 677–686.
- Fouchier RAM, Kuiken T, Schutten M et al. Koch's postulates fulfilled for SARS virus. Nature 2003; 423: 240.
- Deng W, Bao L, Gao H et al. Ocular conjunctival inoculation of SARS‐CoV‐2 can cause mild COVID‐19 in Rhesus macaques. bioRxiv 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.13.990036.
- Cheema M, Aghazadeh H, Nazarali S et al. Keratoconjunctivitis as the initial medical presentation of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Can J Ophthalmol 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcjo.2020.03.003.
- Colavita F, Lapa D, Carletti F et al. SARS‐CoV‐2 isolation from ocular secretions of a patient with COVID‐19 in Italy with prolonged viral RNA detection. Ann Intern Med 2020. https://doi.org/10.7326/M20-1176.
- Khavandi S, Tabibzadeh E, Naderan M et al. Corona virus disease‐19 (COVID‐19) presenting as conjunctivitis: atypically high‐risk during a pandemic. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clae.2020.04.010.
- Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395: 507–513.
- Zhang JJ, Dong X, Cao YY et al. Clinical characteristics of 140 patients infected with SARS‐CoV‐2 in Wuhan, China. Allergy 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.14238.
- Zhu W, Xie K, Lu H et al. Initial clinical features of suspected coronavirus disease 2019 in two emergency departments outside of Hubei, China. J Med Virol 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25763.
- Seah IYJ, Anderson DE, Kang AEZ et al. Assessing viral shedding and infectivity of tears in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) patients. Ophthalmology 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2020.03.026.
- Zhang X, Chen X, Chen L et al. The evidence of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection on ocular surface. Ocul Surf 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtos.2020.03.010.
- World Health Organization. Report of the WHO‐China joint mission on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf.
- Ye Y, Song Y, Yan M et al. Novel coronavirus pneumonia combined with viral conjunctivitis: three cases report. Zhonghua Yan Ke Za Zhi 2020; 38: 242–247.
- Wu P, Duan F, Luo C et al. Characteristics of ocular findings of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) in Hubei Province, China. JAMA Ophthalmol 2019; 2020: 10–13.
- Lu CW, Liu XF, Jia ZF. 2019‐nCoV transmission through the ocular surface must not be ignored. Lancet 2020; 395: e39.
- Peng Y, Zhou YH. Is novel coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) transmitted through conjunctiva? J Med Virol 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25753.
- Chan JFW, Lau SKP, To KKW et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS‐like disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2015; 28: 465–522.
- Hui DS, Wong PC, Wang C. SARS: clinical features and diagnosis. Respirology 2003; 8: S20–S24.
- Hui DSC, Zumla A. Severe acute respiratory syndrome: historical, epidemiologic, and clinical features. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33: 869–889.
- Fan CK, Yieh KM, Peng MY et al. Clinical and laboratory features in the early stage of severe acute respiratory syndrome. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2006; 39: 45–53.
- Abdul‐rasool S, Fielding BC. Understanding human coronavirus hCoV‐NL63. Open Virol J 2010; 4: 76–84.
- Vabret A, Mourez T, Dina J et al. Human coronavirus NL63, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 1225–1229.
- Van der hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF et al. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat Med 2004; 10: 368–373.
- Esper F, Weibel C, Ferguson D et al. Coronavirus HKU1 infection in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 775–779.
- Kanwar A, Selvaraju S, Esper F. Human coronavirus‐HKU1 infection among adults in Cleveland, Ohio. Open Forum Infect Dis 2017; 4: ofx052.
- Giray T, Biçer S, Küçük Ö et al. Four cases with Kawasaki disease and viral infection: aetiology or association? Le Infez Med 2016; 4: 340–344.
- Sun C, Wang Y, Liu G et al. Role of the eye in transmitting human coronavirus: what we know and what we do not know. Preprints 2020: 2020030271.
- Xia J, Tong J, Liu M et al. Evaluation of coronavirus in tears and conjunctival secretions of patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. J Med Virol 2020; 92: 589–594.
- Zhou Y, Zeng Y, Tong Y et al. Ophthalmologic evidence against the interpersonal transmission of 2019 novel coronavirus through conjunctiva. medRxiv 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.11.20021956.
- Chan WM, Yuen KSC, Fan DSP et al. Tears and conjunctival scrapings for coronavirus in patients with SARS. Br J Ophthalmol 2004; 88: 968–969.
- Loon SC, Teoh SCB, Oon LLE et al. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in tears. Br J Ophthalmol 2004; 88: 861–863.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How COVID‐19 spreads. 2020. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-covid-spreads.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fprepare%2Ftransmission.html.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Using personal protective equipment (PPE). 2020. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/using-ppe.html.
- Otter JA, Donskey C, Yezli S et al. Transmission of SARS and MERS coronaviruses and influenza virus in healthcare settings: the possible role of dry surface contamination. J Hosp Infect 2016; 92: 235–250.
- Public Health England. COVID‐19: infection prevention and control (IPC). 2020. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-infection-prevention-and-control.
- Lian KY, Napper G, Stapleton FJ et al. Infection control guidelines for optometrists 2016. Clin Exp Optom 2017; 100: 341–356.
- Qiao C, Zhang H, He M et al. Symptomatic COVID‐19 Infection in Eye Professionals in Wuhan China. Ophthalmology 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2020.04.026.
- World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) advice for the public. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to protect yourself & others. 2020. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.