Comparative Accuracy in Four Civil War Maps of the Shenandoah Valley: A GIS AnalysisFootnote*

*The author would like to thank Dr. Judy M. Olson as well as the three anonymous reviewers for their beneficial and insightful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.

Literature Cited

• Abert , James W. 1861 . Map of the Shenandoah River from Harper's Ferry to Port Republic Manuscript. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration map RG77:Z116.
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , Charles S. and Nunnally , Nelson R. 1972 . Channel stability on the lower Ohio River . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 62 : 411 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballard , P. 1982 . Analysis in historical cartography studies . Cartography , 12 (3) : 173 – 78 .
   Google Scholar
• Begin , Ze'ev B. 1985 . A note on the relationship between flow energy and stream sinuosity . GSI Current Research , 5 : 77 – 78 .
   Google Scholar
• Birtley , Terry G. 1983a . Early charts of the Falklands: Part 1, Passing Contacts . Cartography , 13 (1) : 35 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Birtley , Terry G. 1983b . Early charts of the Falklands: Part 2, The first settlements . Cartography , 13 (2) : 100 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Blakemore , M. J. and Harley , J. B. 1980 . Concepts in the history of cartography: A review and perspective. Monograph 26 . Cartographica , 17 (4) : 1 – 120 .
   Google Scholar
• Boswell , James K. 1881 . “ Report of operations June 1–9, 1862 ” . In War of the Rebellion: A compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies , Edited by: Scott , R. N. Vol. XII , Washington, DC : Government Printing Office . Series 1, Part 1, No. 61.
   Google Scholar
• Bowers , John. 1989 . Stonewall Jackson: Portrait of a soldier , New York : Morrow .
   Google Scholar
• Böÿe , Hermann and Buchholtz , Lewis von . 1859 . Map of the State of Virginia: Reduced , Philadelphia : Tanner . U.S. National Archives and Records Administration map RG77:G61
   Google Scholar
• Butler , David. 1989 . Geomorphic change or cartographic inaccuracy? A case study using sequential topographic maps . Surveying and Mapping , 49 (2) : 67 – 71 .
   Google Scholar
• Butzer , Karl W. and Williams , Barbara J. 1992 . Addendum: Three indigenous maps from New Spain dated ca. 1580 . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 82 : 536 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig , Lillian. 1965 . Agents of peace and progress: The Hotchkiss Brothers used the arts of publicity to foster reconciliation and recovery . Virginia Cavalcade , 14 (4) : 32 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , Burke. 1988 . They called him Stonewall: A life of General T. J. Jackson, C. S. A , New York : Fairfax .
   Google Scholar
• De Vorsey , Louis Jr. 1966 . The colonial Southeast on “an accurate general map.” . The Southeastern Geographer , 6 : 20 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• De Vorsey , Louis Jr. 1982 . The Georgia–South Carolina boundary: A problem in historical geography , Athens : University of Georgia Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dury , G. H. 1970 . “ General theory of meandering valleys and underfit streams ” . In Rivers and river terraces , Edited by: Dury , G. H. 75 New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Dutton , Geoffrey. 1999 . Scale, sinuosity, and point selection in digital line generalization . Cartography and Geographic Information Science , 26 (1) : 33 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Emory , Samuel T. 1964 . Regional variation in the lower Shenandoah Valley of Virginia . The Southeastern Geographer , 4 : 21 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Galvin , Cyril. 1999 . On “creeks” and “runs,” or, why there were two battles of Bull Run and not two battles of Bull Creek . Southeastern Geology , 38 (3) : 177 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Garcia , Joseph E. and Brook , George A. 1996 . Reconstruction of the Ocmulgee River, Georgia: 1807–1971 . The Southeastern Geographer , 36 (2) : 192 – 206 .
   Google Scholar
• Gregory , Ian N. , Bennett , Chris , Gilham , Vicki L. and Southall , Humphrey R. 2002 . The Great Britain historical GIS Project: From maps to changing human geography . The Cartographic Journal , 39 (1) : 37 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulley , Harold and Vorsey , Louis De . 1986 . Lost in battle . The Geographical Magazine , 58 (6) : 288 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• Hack , John T. 1975 . “ Dynamic equilibrium and landscape evolution ” . In Theories of landform development , Edited by: Melhorn , Wilton N. and Flemal , Ronald C. 102 London : Allen .
   Google Scholar
• Hack , John T. and Young , Robert S. 1959 . Intrenched meanders of the North Fork of the Shenandoah River, Virginia , Washington, DC : Government Printing Office . U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 354-A.
   Google Scholar
• Harley , J. Brian. 1967 . Uncultivated fields in the history of British cartography . The Cartographic Journal , 4 (1) : 7 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Harley , J. Brian. 1968 . The evaluation of early maps: Towards a methodology . Imago Mundi , 22 : 62 – 74 .
   Google Scholar
• Harley , J. Brian. 1992 . Rereading the maps of the Columbian encounter . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 82 : 522 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heidenreich , Conrad E. 1981 . Mapping the Great Lakes: The period of imperial rivalries, 1700–1760 . Cartographica , 18 (3) : 74 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• Heidenreich , Conrad E. 1988 . An analysis of the 17th century map “Nouvelle France.” . Cartographica , 25 (3) : 67 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• Hooke , Janet and Perry , R. A. 1976 . The planimetric accuracy of Tithe maps . The Cartographic Journal , 13 : 177 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Hotchkiss , Jedediah . 1862 . Map of the Shenandoah Valley Manuscript. Library of Congress map H89.
   Google Scholar
• Hsu , Mei-Ling. 1978 . The Han maps and early Chinese cartography . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 68 : 45 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu , Bangbo. 2001 . Assessing the accuracy of The map of the prefectural capital of 1261 using Geographic Information Systems . The Professional Geographer , 53 : 32 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imboden , John D. 1956 . “ Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah ” . In Battles and leaders of the Civil War , (Vol. 2) , 282 – 98 . New York : Yoseloff .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , Thomas J. 1881a . “ Report of Port Republic Battle ” . In War of the Rebellion: A compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies , Edited by: Scott , R. N. Vol. XII , Washington, DC : Government Printing Office . Series 1, Part 1.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , Thomas J. 1881b . “ Report of Valley Operations May 14 – June 17, 1862 ” . In War of the Rebellion: A compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies , Edited by: Scott , R. N. Vol. XII , Washington, DC : Government Printing Office . Series 1, Part 1.
   Google Scholar
• Kappner , Franz . 1862 . Map of the valley of Virginia n.p.: Engineer Office, 1st Army Corps. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration map RG77:Z403 1/2.
   Google Scholar
• Kelley , James E. Jr. 1995 . Distortions on sixteenth-century maps of America . Cartographica , 32 (4) : 1 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• King , Philip B. 1949 . The floor of the Shenandoah Valley . American Journal of Science , 247 (2) : 73 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• Kiss , George. 1947 . The cartography of Japan during the middle Tokugawa era: A study in cross-cultural influences . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 37 : 101 – 19 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight , David. 1984 . Fluvial forms and processes , London : Arnold .
   Google Scholar
• Langbein , Walter B. and Leopold , Luna B. 1970 . “ River meanders and the theory of minimum variance ” . In Rivers and river terraces , Edited by: Dury , G. H. 63 New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Laxton , Paul. 1976 . The geodetic and topographical evaluation of English county maps, 1740–1840 . The Cartographic Journal , 13 : 37 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• LeGear , Clara E. 1977 . The Hotchkiss map collection: A list of manuscript maps, many of the Civil War period, prepared by Major Jed. Hotchkiss, and other manuscripts and annotated maps in his possession , Falls Church, VA : Sterling .
   Google Scholar
• Leopold , Luna B. and Wolman , M. Gordon . 1960 . River meanders . Bulletin of the Geological Society of America , 71 : 769 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leopold , Luna B. , Wolman , M. Gordon and Miller , John P. 1964 . Fluvial processes in geomorphology , San Francisco : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Lessing , Peter. 1995 . The Rogers-Hotchkiss geological maps of Virginia and West Virginia . Earth Science History , 14 (1) : 84 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , G. Malcolm. 1966 . William Gilpin and the concept of the Great Plains region . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 56 : 33 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , G. Malcolm. 1980 . Changing national perspectives and the mapping of the Great Lakes between 1755 and 1795 . Cartographica , 17 (3) : 1 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , G. Malcolm. 1987 . Misinterpretation of Amerindian information as a source of error on Euro-American maps . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 77 : 542 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay , James M. 1980 . The assessment of transient patterns on historic maps—A case study . The Cartographic Journal , 17 (1) : 16 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Lloyd , Robert and Gilmartin , Patricia . 1987 . The South Carolina coastline on historical maps: A cartometric analysis . The Cartographic Journal , 24 : 19 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , William W. and Wyckoff , William K. 1993 . A method for assessing the planimetric accuracy of historical maps: The case of the Colorado-Green River system . The Professional Geographer , 45 : 416 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manners , Ian R. 1997 . Constructing the image of a city: The representation of Constantinople in Christopher Buondelmonti's Liber Insularum Archipelagi . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 87 : 72 – 102 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mark , David M. 1983 . Relations between field-surveyed channel networks and map-based geomorphometric measures, Inez, Kentucky . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 73 : 358 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason , Virginia W. 2002 . Frank H. Galbraith's railway mail service maps, 1897 . Cartographic Perspectives , 41 (Winter) : 24 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• McDonald , Archie P. 1967 . The illusive commission of “Major” Jedediah Hotchkiss . Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , 75 (2) : 181 – 85 .
   Google Scholar
• McDonald , Archie P. 1972 . “Is there any letter from Mr. Robinson?”: Correspondence between Jedediah Hotchkiss and Sampson B. Robinson . West Virginia History , 33 (4) : 408 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• McDonald , Archie P. 1973 . “ Make me a map of the valley ” . In The Civil War Journal of Stonewall Jackson's topographer , Dallas : Southern Methodist University Press .
   Google Scholar
• McElfresh , Earl B. 1999 . Maps and mapmakers of the Civil War , New York : Abrams .
   Google Scholar
• McPherson , James M. 1988 . Battle cry of freedom: The Civil War era. The Oxford history of the United States , Vol. 6 , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , William J. 1993 . Mapping for Stonewall: The Civil War service of Jed Hotchkiss , Washington, DC : Elliott and Clark .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , William J. 1994a . “And ye shall chase your enemies”: Jed Hotchkiss, Stonewall Jackson, and the valley campaign . Virginia Cavalcade , 43 (3) : 112 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , William J. 1994b . “And ye shall chase your enemies”: Jed Hotchkiss, Stonewall Jackson, and the valley campaign . Virginia Cavalcade , 43 (4) : 148 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Moody , John A. , Meade , R. H. and Jones , D. R. 2003 . Lewis and Clark's observations and measurements of geomorphology and hydrology, and changes with time , Circular 1246. Reston, VA : U. S. Geological Survey .
   Google Scholar
• Mueller , Jerry E. 1968 . An introduction to the hydraulic and topographic sinuosity indexes . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 58 : 371 – 85 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy , Joan. 1979 . Measures of map accuracy assessment and some early Ulster maps . Irish Geography , 11 : 88 – 101 .
   Google Scholar
• Nelson , Christopher. 1992 . Mapping the Civil War , Golden : Fulcrum .
   Google Scholar
• Pearson , Brooks C. 2004 . Civil War topographical engineering in the Shenandoah . Cartographic Perspectives , 49 Fall : 40 – 63 . 84–88
   Google Scholar
• Peters , Bernard C. 1972 . Early perception of a high plain in Michigan . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 62 : 57 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plewe , Brandon S. 2003 . Representing datum-level uncertainty in historical GIS . Cartography and Geographic Information Science , 30 (4) : 319 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Poole , Sidman P. 1944 . The training of military geographers . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 34 : 202 – 06 .
   Google Scholar
• Pulsipher , Lydia Mehelic. 1987 . Assessing the usefulness of a cartographic curiosity: The 1673 map of a Sugar Island . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 77 : 408 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratzlaff , John. 1991 . Sinuosity components of the Upper Saline River Valley, Western Kansas . Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science , 94 (1–2) : 46 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Ravenhill , William and Gilg , Andrew . 1974 . The accuracy of early maps? Towards a computer aided method . The Cartographic Journal , 11 (1) : 48 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Ristow , Walter W. 1966 . State maps of the Southeast to 1833 . The Southeastern Geographer , 6 : 33 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Robertson , James I. 1997 . Stonewall Jacson: The man, the soldier, the legend , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Robertson-Rintoul , M. S. E. and Richards , K. S. 1993 . “ Braided-channel pattern and paleohydrology using an index of total sinuosity ” . In Braided rivers , Edited by: Best , J. L. and Bristow , C. S. 113 – 18 . Geological Society Special Publication 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Roper , Peter W. 1989 . “One of America's foremost cartographers”: Jed Hotchkiss . Map Collector , 49 : 2 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Roper , Peter W. 1991 . Jed Hotchkiss and the geological map of Virginia . Earth Science History , 10 (1) : 38 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Roper , Peter W. 1992 . Jedediah Hotchkiss: Rebel mapmaker and Virginia businessman , Shippensburg : White Mane .
   Google Scholar
• Rubin , R. 1990 . The map of Jerusalem (1538) by Hermanus Borculus and its copies—A carto-genealogical study . The Cartographic Journal , 27 (1) : 31 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , Richard Joel. 1947 . Stream meanders . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 37 : 65 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Saavedra , E. M. 1976 . “Surveyed and exactly drawne”: Virginia's cartographers and their maps . Virginia Cavalcade , 25 : 100 – 09 .
   Google Scholar
• Schumm , S. A. 1963 . Sinuosity of alluvial rivers on the Great Plains . Geological Society of America Bulletin , 74 : 1089 – 1100 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selby , John. 1968 . Stonewall Jackson as military commander , London : Batsford .
   Google Scholar
• Sen , Amitava and Bhattacharyya , Jibitesh . 2000 . Spatial mismatch of coastline in land-sea segments due to difference in projection systems—A case study . Journal of the Geological Society of India , 56 : 97 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , David. 1981 . David Thompson's surveying instruments and methods in the Northwest, 1790–1812 . Cartographica , 18 (4) : 1 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , David. 1989 . The representation of non-extrusive industry on large-scale county maps of England and Wales, 1700–ca. 1840 . The Cartographic Journal , 26 (2) : 134 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson , Richard W. , ed. 1989 . Civil War maps: An annotated list of maps and atlases in the Library of Congress , (2nd ed.) , Washington, DC : Library of Congress .
   Google Scholar
• 1999 . An unfamiliar country: Mapping Virginia during the Civil War . Virginia Cavalcade , 48 (1) : 24 – 35 . Stephenson, Richard W., ed.
   Google Scholar
• Stephenson , Richard W. and McKee , Marianne M. 2000 . Virginia in maps: Four centuries of settlement, growth, and development , Charlottesville : Virginia State Library .
   Google Scholar
• Strang , Alastair. 1998 . The analysis of Ptolemy's geography . The Cartographic Journal , 35 (1) : 27 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strother , David Hunter. 1853 . The Virginian Canaan . Harper's New Monthly Magazine , 8 (43) : 18 – 36 .
   Google Scholar
• Thomas , Jerry B. 1976 . Jedediah Hotchkiss, gilded-age propagandist of industrialism . Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , 84 (2) : 189 – 202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornbury , William D. 1969 . Principles of geomorphology , (2nd ed.) , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Thrower , Norman J. W. 1969 . Edmond Halley as a thematic geo-cartographer . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 59 : 652 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobler , W. R. 1966 . Medieval distortions: The projections of ancient maps . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 56 : 351 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandiver , Frank E. 1957 . Mighty Stonewall , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Whittington , I. F. G. 1982 . Design of maps for military use . The Cartographic Journal , 19 (2) : 113 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Widder , Keith R. 1999 . The cartography of Dietrich Brehm and Thomas Hutchins and the establishment of British authority in the western Great Lakes region, 1760–1763 . Cartographica , 36 (1) : 1 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolter , John A. 1972 . The heights of mountains and the lengths of rivers . Surveying and Mapping , 32 (3) : 312 – 29 .
   Google Scholar
• Woodward , David. 1985 . Reality, symbolism, time, and space in medieval world maps . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 75 : 510 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward , David. 1990 . Roger Bacon's terrestrial coordinate system . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 80 : 109 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yerci , M. 1989 . The accuracy of the first world map drawn by Piri Reis . The Cartographic Journal , 26 : 154 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar