81
Views
26
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Special Article

Putting vital stains in context

, BScOptom PhD DSc FAAO
Pages 400-421 | Received 09 Jun 2011, Accepted 19 Jun 2012, Published online: 15 Apr 2021

References

  • Efron N. Contact Lens Complications. Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier, 2012.
  • Pflüger E. Zur Ernährung der Cornea. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1882; 20: 69–81.
  • Norn MS. Lissamine green. Vital staining of cornea and conjunctiva. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1973; 51: 483–491.
  • Norn MS. Rose bengal vital staining. Staining of cornea and conjunctiva by 10 per cent rose bengal, compared with 1 percent. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1970; 48: 546–559.
  • Roth H‐W. Contact Lens Complications: Etiology, Pathogenesis, Prevention, Therapy. New York, NY: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc, 2002.
  • Smolin G, Foster CS, Azar DT, Dohlman CH. Smolin and Thoft's The Cornea: Scientific Foundations and Clinical Practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.
  • Steinemann TL, Ehlers W, Suchecki JK. Contact lens‐related complications. In: Yanoff M, Duker JS, eds. Ophthalmology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby Inc, 2008. p 330–339.
  • Efron N, Morgan PB. Can subtypes of contact lens‐associated corneal infiltrative events be clinically differentiated? Cornea 2006; 25: 540–544.
  • Bouchard CS. Non‐infectious keratitis. In: Yanoff M, Duker JS, eds. Ophthalmology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby Inc, 2008. p 289–298.
  • Malinovsky V, Pole JJ, Pence NA, Howard D. Epithelial splits of the superior cornea in hydrogel contact lens patients. Int Contact Lens Clin 1989; 16: 252–255.
  • Dart JK. Disease and risks associated with contact lenses. Br J Ophthalmol 1993; 77: 49–53.
  • Snyder C. Solution interaction with the ocular surface: the significance in making the grade. Clin Refract Optom 2005; 16: 135–140.
  • Korb DR, Herman JP, Finnemore VM, Exford JM, Blackie CA. An evaluation of the efficacy of fluorescein, rose bengal, lissamine green, and a new dye mixture for ocular surface staining. Eye Contact Lens 2008; 34: 61–64.
  • Tabery HM. Dual appearance of fluorescein staining in vivo of diseased human corneal epithelium. A non‐contact photomicrographic study. Br J Ophthalmol 1992; 76: 43–44.
  • Mokhtarzadeh M, Casey R, Glasgow BJ. Fluorescein punctate staining traced to superficial corneal epithelial cells by impression cytology and confocal microscopy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: 2127–2135.
  • Machado LM, Castro RS, Fontes BM. Staining patterns in dry eye syndrome: rose bengal versus lissamine green. Cornea 2009; 28: 732–734.
  • Feenstra RP, Tseng SC. Comparison of fluorescein and rose bengal staining. Ophthalmology 1992; 99: 605–617.
  • Feenstra RP, Tseng SC. What is actually stained by rose bengal? Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110: 984–993.
  • Davies DM, Moozyckine AU. Kinetics and mechanism of the bleaching of a triarylmethane dye by hydrogen peroxide and water: evidence for intramolecular base catalysis. J Chem Soc, Perkin Trans 2000; 2: 1495–1503.
  • Courtney RC, Lee JM. Predicting ocular intolerance of a contact lens solution by use of a filter system enhancing fluorescein staining detection. Int Contact Lens Clin 1982; 9: 302–310.
  • Chodosh J, Dix RD, Howell RC, Stroop WG, Tseng SC. Staining characteristics and antiviral activity of sulforhodamine B and lissamine green B. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1994; 35: 1046–1058.
  • Bakkar M, Maldonado‐codina C, Morgan PB, Dobson C. Development of an in‐vitro model of solution induced corneal staining. Optom Vis Sci 2010; 87: E‐Abstract 100959.
  • Batistela VR, da Costa cedran J, Moisés de oliveira HP, Scarminio IS, Ueno LT, Eduardo da hora machado A, Hioka N. Protolytic fluorescein species evaluated using chemometry and DFT studies. Dyes Pigments 2010; 86: 15–24.
  • Batistela VR, Pellosi DS, de Souza FD, da Costa WF, de Oliveira santin SM, de Souza VR, Caetano W et al. pKa determinations of xanthene derivates in aqueous solutions by multivariate analysis applied to UV‐Vis spectrophotometric data. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 2011; 79: 889–897.
  • Bright FV, Kraut ND, Horner IJ, Merchea MM, Maziarz P, Liu XM. Quantitative association between multi‐purpose solution preservative agents and ophthalmic dyes. Optom Vis Sci 2011; 88: E‐Abstract 115779.
  • Bron AJ. The Doyne Lecture. Reflections on the tears. Eye (Lond) 1997; 11: 583–602.
  • Bron AJ, Evans VE, Smith JA. Grading of corneal and conjunctival staining in the context of other dry eye tests. Cornea 2003; 22: 640–650.
  • Emmart EW. Observations on the absorption spectra of fluorescein, fluorescein derivatives and conjugates. Arch Biochem Biophys 1958; 73: 1–8.
  • Martin MM, Lindqvist L. The pH dependence of fluorescein fluorescence. J Luminescence 1975; 10: 381–390.
  • Sjöback R, Nygren J, Kubista M. Absorption and fluorescence properties of fluorescein. Spectrochim Acta Part A: Mol Biomol Spectroscopy 1995; 51: L7–L21.
  • Chang C‐C, Yang Y‐T, Yang J‐C, Wu H‐D, Tsai T. Absorption and emission spectral shifts of rose bengal associated with DMPC liposomes. Dyes Pigments 2008; 79: 170–175.
  • Rauf MA, Graham JP, Bukallah SB, Al‐saedi MA. Solvatochromic behavior on the absorption and fluorescence spectra of Rose Bengal dye in various solvents. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 2009; 72: 133–137.
  • Xu D, Neckers DC. Aggregation of rose bengal molecules in solution. J Photochem Photobiol A: Chem 1987; 40: 361–370.
  • Martinez‐izquierdo ME, Durand‐alegria JS, Cabrera‐martin A, Gallego‐andreu R. Spectrophotometric and spectrofluorimetric study of Rose Bengal B and its reaction with platinum (IV). Analyst 1984; 109: 377–379.
  • Tseng SC, Feenstra RP, Watson BD. Characterization of photodynamic actions of rose bengal on cultured cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1994; 35: 3295–3307.
  • Khan‐lim D, Berry M. Still confused about rose bengal? Curr Eye Res 2004; 29: 311–317.
  • Kim J. The use of vital dyes in corneal disease. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2000; 11: 241–247.
  • Methodologies to diagnose and monitor dry eye disease: report of the Diagnostic Methodology Subcommittee of the International Dry Eye WorkShop (2007). Ocul Surf 2007; 5: 108–152.
  • Jones L, Macdougall N, Sorbara LG. Asymptomatic corneal staining associated with the use of balafilcon silicone‐hydrogel contact lenses disinfected with a polyaminopropyl biguanide‐preserved care regimen. Optom Vis Sci 2002; 79: 753–761.
  • Szczotka‐flynn L, Lass JH, Sethi A, Debanne S, Benetz BA, Albright M, Gillespie B et al. Risk factors for corneal infiltrative events during continuous wear of silicone hydrogel contact lenses. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 5421–5430.
  • Norn MS. Micropunctate fluorescein vital staining of the cornea. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1970; 48: 108–118.
  • Andrasko G, Ryen K. Corneal staining and comfort observed with traditional and silicone hydrogel lenses and multipurpose solution combinations. Optometry 2008; 79: 444–454.
  • Garofalo RJ, Dassanayake N, Carey C, Stein J, Stone R, David R. Corneal staining and subjective symptoms with multipurpose solutions as a function of time. Eye Contact Lens 2005; 31: 166–174.
  • Bandamwar KL, Garrett Q, Cheung D, Huang J, Lee L, Ng C, Papas EB. Onset time course of solution induced corneal staining. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2010; 33: 199–201.
  • Barrett RP, Mowery‐mckee M, Hazlett LD. Punctate fluorescein corneal staining observed using polyhexamethylene biguanide containing disinfecting solution not indicative of corneal surface damage. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46: E‐Abstract 5732.
  • Cavet ME, Harrington KL, Vandermeid KR, Ward KW, Zhang JZ. In vitro biocompatibility assessment of multipurpose contact lens solutions: Effects on human corneal epithelial viability and barrier function. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2012; 35:163–170.
  • Bright FV, Merchea MM, Kraut ND, Maziarz EP, Liu XM, Awasthi AK. A preservative‐and‐fluorescein interaction model for benign multipurpose solution‐associated transient corneal hyperfluorescence. Cornea 2012 Mar 9. [Epub ahead of print].
  • Morgan PB, Maldonado‐codina C. Corneal staining: do we really understand what we are seeing? Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2009; 32: 48–54.
  • Kikkawa Y. Normal corneal staining with fluorescein. Exp Eye Res 1972; 14: 13–20.
  • Thinda S, Sikh PK, Hopp LM, Glasgow BJ. Polycarbonate membrane impression cytology: evidence for fluorescein staining in normal and dry eye corneas. Br J Ophthalmol 2010; 94: 406–409.
  • Kuo J, Albright M, Szczotka‐flynn L. Is there an association between corneal staining and other clinical slit lamp variables during 30-day soft lens continuous wear? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: E‐Abstract 4832.
  • Nichols JJ, Sinnott LT. Tear film, contact lens, and patient factors associated with corneal staining. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: 1127–1137.
  • Alarcon I, Tam C, Mun JJ, Ledue J, Evans DJ, Fleiszig SM. Factors impacting corneal epithelial barrier function against Pseudomonas aeruginosa traversal. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: 1368–1377.
  • Tam C, Mun JJ, Evans DJ, Fleiszig SM. The impact of inoculation parameters on the pathogenesis of contact lens‐related infectious keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 3100–3106.
  • Nichols KK, Mitchell GL, Simon KM, Chivers DA, Edrington TB. Corneal staining in hydrogel lens wearers. Optom Vis Sci 2002; 79: 20–30.
  • Alila S, Boufi S, Belgacem MN, Beneventi D. Adsorption of a cationic surfactant onto cellulosic fibers I. Surface charge effects. Langmuir 2005; 21: 8106–8113.
  • Allen MJ, Morby AP, White GF. Cooperativity in the binding of the cationic biocide polyhexamethylene biguanide to nucleic acids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 318: 397–404.
  • Duench S, Simpson T, Jones L, Fonn D. Corneal staining is not correlated with limbal or bulbar redness in subjects using daily wear silicone hydrogel contact lenses. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: E‐Abstract 87.
  • Kislan T. An evaluation of corneal staining with 2 multipurpose solutions. Optometry 2008; 79: 330.
  • Levy B. Superficial corneal ‘staining'—clinical observation and risk assessment. Eye Contact Lens 2007; 33: 165–166.
  • Merchea MM, Reindel W, Snyder C, White M, China P, Lafrance M, Fullard R. Inflammatory mediators associated with transient, contact lens solution‐induced corneal staining. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: E‐Abstract 4851.
  • Sorbara L, Peterson R, Woods C, Fonn D. Multipurpose disinfecting solutions and their interactions with a silicone hydrogel lens. Eye Contact Lens 2009; 35: 92–97.
  • Tilia DB, Weng R, Thomas V, Willcox M, Holden BA. Evaluation of solution induced corneal staining impact on comfort during short term contact lens wear. Optom Vis Sci 2009; 86: E‐Abstract 95509.
  • Powell CH, Lally JM, Hoong LD, Huth SW. Lipophilic versus hydrodynamic modes of uptake and release by contact lenses of active entities used in multipurpose solutions. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2010; 33: 9–18.
  • Willcox MD, Phillips B, Ozkan J, Jalbert I, Meagher L, Gengenbach T, Holden B et al. Interactions of lens care with silicone hydrogel lenses and effect on comfort. Optom Vis Sci 2010; 87: 839–846.
  • Berginc K, Zakelj S, Levstik L, Ursic D, Kristl A. Fluorescein transport properties across artificial lipid membranes, Caco‐2 cell monolayers and rat jejunum. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2007; 66: 281–285.
  • Konishi Y, Kubo K, Shimizu M. Structural effects of phenolic acids on the transepithelial transport of fluorescein in caco‐2 cell monolayers. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2003; 67: 2014–2017.
  • Muya L, Mowrey‐mckee MF, Minno G, Meadows F. Determination of binding of PHMB to mucin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: E‐Abstract 4869.
  • Carnt NA, Evans VE, Naduvilath TJ, Willcox MD, Papas EB, Frick KD, Holden BA. Contact lens‐related adverse events and the silicone hydrogel lenses and daily wear care system used. Arch Ophthalmol 2009; 127: 1616–1623.
  • Willcox M. Ophthalmic Devices Panel Meeting. Washington, DC; June 10, 2008. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/DOCKETS/ac/08/slides/2008‐4363oph1‐08‐WILLCOX.pdf. October 12, 2011.
  • Pult H, Purslow C, Berry M, Murphy PJ. Clinical tests for successful contact lens wear: relationship and predictive potential. Optom Vis Sci 2008; 85: E924–E929.
  • Couto SR, Sanromán MÁ. Coconut flesh: a novel raw material for laccase production by Trametes hirsuta under solid‐state conditions.: Application to Lissamine Green B decolourization. J Food Eng 2005; 71: 208–213.
  • Westcott SL, Zhang J, Shelton RK, Bruce NM, Gupta S, Keen SL, Tillman JW et al. Broadband optical absorbance spectroscopy using a whispering gallery mode microsphere resonator. Rev Sci Instrum 2008; 79: 033106.
  • Kuehni RG. Color: An Introduction to Practice and Principles, 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, 2004.
  • Schwartz SH. Visual Perception: A Clinical Orientation, 4th ed. New York, New York: McGraw‐Hill Professional Publishing, 2009.
  • Mcdonnell C. Lissamine Green. Optician [serial on the Internet]. February 2010; 239 (6238): 26,27,30. Available from: http://www.opticianonline.net/assets/getAsset.aspx?ItemID=3921.
  • Albani JR. Principles and Applications of Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2008.
  • Sauer M, Hofkens J, Enderlein J. Basic Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Handbook of Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Imaging. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley‐VCH, 2011. p 1–30.
  • Williams RT, Bridges JW. Fluorescence of solutions: a review. J Clin Pathol 1964; 17: 371–394.
  • Vodolazkaya NA, Gurina YA, Salamanova NV, Mchedlov‐petrossyan NO. Spectroscopic study of acid–base ionization and tautomerism of fluorescein dyes in direct microemulsions at high bulk ionic strength. J Mol Liq 2009; 145: 188–196.
  • Schubert EF. Human eye sensitivity and photometric quantities. In: Schubert EF ed. Light‐Emitting Diodes, 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. p 275–291.
  • Vogt A. Lehrbuch und Atlas der Spaltlampenmikroskopie des Lebenden Auges. Berlin, Germany: Julius Springer, 1930.
  • Wilson G, Ren H, Laurent J. Corneal epithelial fluorescein staining. J Am Optom Assoc 1995; 66: 435–441.
  • Foulks GN. Challenges and pitfalls in clinical trials of treatments for dry eye. Ocul Surf 2003; 1: 20–30.
  • Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed. New York, New York: Garland Science, 2002.
  • Committee to Review the National Nanotechnology I, National Research C. Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative. Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press; 2006.
  • Peterson RC, Gorbet M, Cira D, Amos C, Woods CA, Fonn D. Non‐invasive collection and examination of human corneal epithelial cells. Optom Vis Sci 2011; 88: 1317–1325.
  • Efron N, Perez‐gomez I, Mutalib HA, Hollingsworth J. Confocal microscopy of the normal human cornea. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2001; 24: 16–24.
  • Eliason JA, Maurice DM. Staining of the conjunctiva and conjunctival tear film. Br J Ophthalmol 1990; 74: 519–522.
  • Brautaset RL, Nilsson M, Leach N, Miller WL, Gire A, Quintero S, Bergmanson JP. Corneal and conjunctival epithelial staining in hydrogel contact lens wearers. Eye Contact Lens 2008; 34: 312–316.
  • van der Worp E, de Brabander J, Swarbrick HA, Hendrikse F. Evaluation of signs and symptoms in 3‐ and 9‐o'clock staining. Optom Vis Sci 2009; 86: 260–265.
  • Young G, Port M. Rigid gas‐permeable extended wear: a comparative clinical study. Optom Vis Sci 1992; 69: 214–226.
  • Schnider CM, Terry RL, Holden BA. Effect of patient and lens performance characteristics on peripheral corneal desiccation. J Am Optom Assoc 1996; 67: 144–150.
  • Tseng SC, Zhang SH. Interaction between rose bengal and different protein components. Cornea 1995; 14: 427–435.
  • Khurana AK, Chaudhary R, Ahluwalia BK, Gupta S. Tear film profile in dry eye. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1991; 69: 79–86.
  • Kim J, Foulks GN. Evaluation of the effect of lissamine green and rose bengal on human corneal epithelial cells. Cornea 1999; 18: 328– 332.
  • Li X, Traganos F, Melamed MR, Darzynkiewicz Z. Single‐step procedure for labeling DNA strand breaks with fluorescein‐ or BODIPY‐conjugated deoxynucleotides: detection of apoptosis and bromodeoxyuridine incorporation. Cytometry 1995; 20: 172–180.
  • Lin K, Nagy JA, Xu H, Shockley TR, Yarmush ML, Dvorak HF. Compartmental distribution of tumor‐specific monoclonal antibodies in human melanoma xenografts. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 2269–2277.
  • Kawai H, Nagamura T. Inverse photochromism of substituted triphenylmethane dyes in poly(vinyl alcohol) films. J Photochem Photobiol A: Chem 1995; 92: 105–109.
  • Song L, Hennink EJ, Young IT, Tanke HJ. Photobleaching kinetics of fluorescein in quantitative fluorescence microscopy. Biophys J 1995; 68: 2588–2600.
  • Tonogai Y, Ito Y, Iwaida M, Tati M, Ose Y, Sato T. Studies on the toxicity of coal‐tar dyes. I. Photodecomposed products of four xanthene dyes and their acute toxicity to fish. J Toxicol Sci 1979; 4: 115–125.
  • Doughty MJ. pH dependent spectral properties of sodium fluorescein ophthalmic solutions revisited. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2010; 30: 167–174.
  • Bruce AS, Little SA. Soft lens design, fitting, and physiological response. In: Hom MM, Bruce AS, eds. Manual of Contact Lens Prescribing and Fitting, 3rd ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier, 2006. p 277–312.
  • Sowka JW, Gurwood AS, Kabat AG. Keratitis sicca/dry eye syndrome. In: Handbook of Ocular Disease Management, 5th ed [book on the Internet]: Revview of Optometry, 2004. Available from: http://cms.revoptom.com/handbook/sect3a.htm.
  • Glasson MJ, Stapleton F, Keay L, Sweeney D, Willcox MD. Differences in clinical parameters and tear film of tolerant and intolerant contact lens wearers. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003; 44: 5116–5124.
  • Tu EY, Rheinstrom S. Dry eye. In: Yanoff M, Duker JS, eds. Ophthalmology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby Inc, 2008. p 324–329.
  • Korb DR, Herman JP. Corneal staining subsequent to sequential fluorescein instillations. J Am Optom Assoc 1979; 50: 361–367.
  • Morgan PB, Efron N, Maldonado‐codina C, Efron S. Adverse events and discontinuations with rigid and soft hyper Dk contact lenses used for continuous wear. Optom Vis Sci 2005; 82: 528–535.
  • Kline LN, Deluca TJ, Fishberg GM. Corneal staining relating to contact lens wear. J Am Optom Assoc 1979; 50: 353–357.
  • Mcmonnies CW. Incomplete blinking: exposure keratopathy, lid wiper epitheliopathy, dry eye, refractive surgery, and dry contact lenses. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2007; 30: 37–51.
  • Ventocilla M, Wicker D. Contact lens complications. Medscape Reference [serial on the Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1196459‐overview#aw2aab6b6.
  • Buckley R, Lawrenson J, Macalister G, Morgan G, Smith L. Conjunctivitis medicamentosa. Clinical Management Guidelines [serial on the Internet]. 2008. Available from: http://www.med‐support.org.uk/IntegratedCRD.nsf/c4834b9475c148f38025774c00520c48/0af9cf91679fafe3802577750056f766?OpenDocument.
  • Sweeney DF, Jalbert I, Covey M, Sankaridurg PR, Vajdic C, Holden BA, Sharma S et al. Clinical characterization of corneal infiltrative events observed with soft contact lens wear. Cornea 2003; 22: 435–442.
  • Shovlin J, Eiden SB, Hom MM, Cunningham D, Myers JA, Sacco AJ, Stiegemeier MJ. Infiltrative keratitis in daily lens wearers: do you see what I see? Contact Lens Spectrum [serial on the Internet]. April 2011; 26(suppl). Available from: http://www.clspectrum.com/article.aspx?article=105461.
  • Stenson S. Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis associated with soft contact lens wear. Arch Ophthalmol 1983; 101: 402–404.
  • Dua HS, Azuara‐blanco A. Autologous limbal transplantation in patients with unilateral corneal stem cell deficiency. Br J Ophthalmol 2000; 84: 273–278.
  • Sowka JW, Gurwood AS, Kabat AG. Bacterial Keratitis. In: Handbook of Ocular Disease Management, 11th ed [book on the Internet]: Review of Optometry; 2009. pp 24A–26A. Available from: http://www.revoptom.com/cmsdocuments/2009/9/ro0409_handbook.pdf.
  • Rubenstein JB, Virasch V. Conjunctivitis: infectious and non‐infectious. In: Yanoff M, Duker JS, eds. Ophthalmology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby Inc, 2008. pp 227–236.
  • Jones LW, Jones DA. Non‐inflammatory corneal complications of contact lens wear. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2001; 24: 73–79.
  • Lansche RK, Lee RC. Acute complications from present day corneal contact lenses: a report of fourteen new cases. Arch Ophthalmol 1960; 64: 275–285.
  • Weissman BA, Barr JT, Harris MG, Mcmahon TT, Rah MJ, Secor GB, Sonsino J. Optometric Clinical Practice Guidelines. Care of the Contact Lens Patient. St. Louis, Missouri: American Optometric Association; 2006. Available from: http://www.aoa.org/documents/CPG‐19.pdf.
  • Bennett ES, Henry VA. Clinical Manual of Contact Lenses. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.
  • Matheson A. The use of stains in dry eye assessment. Optician [serial on the Internet]. February 2007; 233(6091): 26–31. Available from: http://www.opticianonline.net/assets/getAsset.aspx?ItemID=3366.
  • Sindt SJ. Incomplete blinking and idiopathic nocturnal lagophthalmos, the overlooked dry eye components. Clin Eye Vis Care 1999; 11: 25–31.
  • van der Worp E, De brabander J, Swarbrick H, Nuijts R, Hendrikse F. Corneal desiccation in rigid contact lens wear: 3‐ and 9‐o'clock staining. Optom Vis Sci 2003; 80: 280–290.
  • Uchiyama E, Aronowicz JD, Butovich IA, Mcculley JP. Pattern of vital staining and its correlation with aqueous tear deficiency and meibomian gland dropout. Eye Contact Lens 2007; 33: 177–179.
  • Sowka JW, Gurwood AS, Kabat AG. Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy. In: Handbook of Ocular Disease Management [book on the Internet]. 2010. pp 26A–27A. Available from: http://legacy.revoptom.com/handbook/sect3j.htm.
  • Sacco AJ. Contact lens‐associated infiltrative keratitis and multipurpose solutions. Contact Lens Spectrum [serial on the Internet]. 2011; 26: 40–45. Available from: http://www.clspectrum.com/articleViewer.aspx?articleID=105455.
  • Sowka JW, Gurwood AS, Kabat AG. Viral conjunctivitis. In: Handbook of Ocular Disease Management [book on the Internet]. 2008. p 14–16.
  • Sacco A, ed. Silicone hydrogel contact lenses, lens care and sterile infiltrates: Is there a connection? The Annual Global Specialty Lens Symposium; 2011 January 27–30; Las Vegas, NV.
  • Duszak RS. Thygeson superficial punctate keratitis. In: Medscape Reference [book on the Internet]: Medscape; 2010. Available from: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1197335‐clinical#showall.
  • Kislan TP, Hom MM. Corneal infiltrates with multipurpose solutions and contact lens combinations. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: E‐Abstract 3424.
  • Aoki K, Kaneko H, Kitaichi N, Ohguchi T, Tagawa Y, Ohno S. Clinical features of adenoviral conjunctivitis at the early stage of infection. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2011; 55: 11–15.
  • Macmillan DW, Ferguson JG, Roper BE, Chandler DA, Magovern M, Price ME, Wiesinger H et al. Treatment of conjunctival and eyelid infections. Ophthalmology Update [serial on the Internet]. October 1999; (4): 3. Available from: http://www.richmondeye.com/newsletter/Ophthalmology_Update_04_oct99.pdf.
  • Schwallie JD, Mckenney CD, Long WD, Jr, Mcneil A. Corneal staining patterns in normal non‐contact lens wearers. Optom Vis Sci 1997; 74: 92–98.
  • Dundas M, Walker A, Woods RL. Clinical grading of corneal staining of non‐contact lens wearers. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2001; 21: 30–35.
  • Dumbleton K, Jones L, Chalmers R, Williams‐lyn D, Fonn D. Mucin ball post‐lens debris in high Dk silicone hydrogel wearers. CLAO J 2000; 26: 186–192.
  • Soni PS, Horner DG, Ross J. Ocular response to lens care systems in adolescent soft contact lens wearers. Optom Vis Sci 1996; 73: 70–85.
  • Josephson JE, Caffery BE. Corneal staining characteristics after sequential instillations of fluorescein. Optom Vis Sci 1992; 69: 570–573.
  • Korb DR, Korb JM. Corneal staining prior to contact lens wearing. J Am Optom Assoc 1970; 41: 228–232.
  • Begley CG, Barr JT, Edrington TB, Long WD, Mckenney CD, Chalmers RL. Characteristics of corneal staining in hydrogel contact lens wearers. Optom Vis Sci 1996; 73: 193–200.
  • Jalbert I, Sweeney DF, Holden BA. The characteristics of corneal staining in successful daily and extended disposable contact lens wearers. Clin Exp Optom 1999; 82: 4–10.
  • Aakre BM, Ystenaes AE, Doughty MJ, Austrheim O, Westerfjell B, Lie MT. A 6‐month follow‐up of successful refits from daily disposable soft contact lenses to continuous wear of high‐Dk silicone‐hydrogel lenses. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2004; 24: 130–141.
  • Lakkis C, Brennan NA. Bulbar conjunctival fluorescein staining in hydrogel contact lens wearers. CLAO J 1996; 22: 189–194.
  • du Toit R, Situ P, Simpson T, Fonn D. The effects of six months of contact lens wear on the tear film, ocular surfaces, and symptoms of presbyopes. Optom Vis Sci 2001; 78: 455–462.
  • Szczotka‐flynn LB. The Longitudinal Analysis of Silicone Hydrogel Contact Lens Study. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Western Reserve University; 2010.
  • Guillon M, Maissa C, Garofalo R, Cockshott N, Wong S, Hanna B. Contact lens induced conjunctival staining objective scale. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: E‐Abstract 1522.
  • Maissa CA, Guillon M, Wong S. Differential distribution of corneal and conjunctival staining in contact lens wearers and non wearers. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: E‐Abstract 6476.
  • Villani E, Galimberti D, Viola F, Ratiglia R. In vivo confocal microscopy of the ocular surface. Am J Ophthalmol 2010; 149: 689–690; author reply 690.
  • Ward SK, Dogru M, Wakamatsu T, Ibrahim O, Matsumoto Y, Kojima T, Sato EA et al. Passive cigarette smoke exposure and soft contact lens wear. Optom Vis Sci 2010; 87: 367–372.
  • Xu KP, Yagi Y, Tsubota K. Decrease in corneal sensitivity and change in tear function in dry eye. Cornea 1996; 15: 235–239.
  • Pflugfelder SC, Tseng SC, Sanabria O, Kell H, Garcia CG, Felix C, Feuer W et al. Evaluation of subjective assessments and objective diagnostic tests for diagnosing tear‐film disorders known to cause ocular irritation. Cornea 1998; 17: 38–56.
  • Efron N, Morgan PB, Katsara SS. Validation of grading scales for contact lens complications. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2001; 21: 17–29.
  • Albright MB, Kuo J, Szczotka‐flynn L. An evaluation of global corneal staining scales in soft contact lens wear. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: E‐Abstract 4838.
  • Simpson T, Schulze MM, Stolee P. Rasch analysis of clinical grading of corneal staining. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: E‐Abstract 1967.
  • Wolffsohn JS. Incremental nature of anterior eye grading scales determined by objective image analysis. Br J Ophthalmol 2004; 88: 1434–1438.
  • Van der worp E, De brabander J, Swarbrick H, Hendrikse F. Eyeblink frequency and type in relation to 3‐ and 9‐o'clock staining and gas permeable contact lens variables. Optom Vis Sci 2008; 85: E857–E866.
  • Efron N, Pritchard N, Brandon K, Copeland J, Godfrey R, Hamlyn B, Vrbancic V. A survey of the use of grading scales for contact lens complications in optometric practice. Clin Exp Optom 2011; 94: 193–199.
  • Nichols KK, Mitchell GL, Zadnik K. The repeatability of clinical measurements of dry eye. Cornea 2004; 23: 272–285.
  • Berntsen DA, Mitchell GL, Nichols JJ. Reliability of grading lissamine green conjunctival staining. Cornea 2006; 25: 695–700.
  • Hamrah P, Alipour F, Jiang S, Sohn JH, Foulks GN. Optimizing evaluation of lissamine green parameters for ocular surface staining. Eye (Lond) 2011; 25: 1429–1434.
  • Dua HS, Forrester JV. Clinical patterns of corneal epithelial wound healing. Am J Ophthalmol 1987; 104: 481–489.
  • Barr JT, Wilson BS, Gordon MO, Rah MJ, Riley C, Kollbaum PS, Zadnik K. Estimation of the incidence and factors predictive of corneal scarring in the Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Keratoconus (CLEK) Study. Cornea 2006; 25: 16–25.
  • Ousler GWI, Kellerman D, Durham T, Brazzell K, Kennedy K, Abelson M. A correlation between central corneal staining and dry eye symptomatology. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: E‐Abstract 281.
  • Mack C, Schafer J. Managing contact lens complications: case histories help illustrate how to diagnose and treat soft contact lens complications. Contact Lens Spectrum [serial on the Internet]. 2004; 19(12). Available from: http://www.clspectrum.com/article.aspx?article=12724.
  • Lipener C. A randomized clinical comparison of OPTI‐FREE EXPRESS and ReNu MultiPLUS multipurpose lens care solutions. Adv Ther 2009; 26: 435–446.
  • Martin R, Sanchez I, de la Rosa C, de Juan V, Rodriguez G, de Paz I, Zalama M. Differences in the daily symptoms associated with the silicone hydrogel contact lens wear. Eye Contact Lens 2010; 36: 49–53.
  • Nichols JJ, Sinnott LT. Tear film, contact lens, and patient‐related factors associated with contact lens‐related dry eye. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 1319–1328.
  • Paugh JR, Marsden HJ, Edrington TB, Deland PN, Simmons PA, Vehige JG. A pre‐application drop containing carboxymethylcellulose can reduce multipurpose solution‐induced corneal staining. Optom Vis Sci 2007; 84: 65–71.
  • Pritchard N, Young G, Coleman S, Hunt C. Subjective and objective measures of corneal staining related to multipurpose care systems. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2003; 26: 3–9.
  • Viso E, Gude F, Rodriguez‐ares MT. The association of meibomian gland dysfunction and other common ocular diseases with dry eye: a population‐based study in Spain. Cornea 2011; 30: 1–6.
  • Jones LW, Keir N, Situ P, Fonn D. The impact of post‐insertion time on corneal staining and comfort with group II hydrogel materials disinfected with various lens care regimens. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46: E‐Abstract 917.
  • Le sage N, Verreault R, Rochette L. Efficacy of eye patching for traumatic corneal abrasions: A controlled clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 38: 129–134.
  • Luntz MH, Maccallum FO. Treatment of herpes simplex keratitis with 5‐Iodo‐2′‐Deoxyuridine. Br J Ophthalmol 1963; 47: 449–456.
  • Hom MM. Complete Easy Rub vs. Optifree Replenish: evaluation of staining, tear break‐up time, and pre‐lens tear thinning time. Optom Vis Sci 2008; 85: E‐Abstract 85059.
  • Dassanayake NL, Garofalo R, Carey R, David R, Meadows DL, Stone RP. Correlating biocide uptake and release profiles with corneal staining and subjective symptoms. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46: E‐Abstract 915.
  • Sentell KB, Beaullieu E. Comparison of preservative uptake and release profiles of PHMB from soft contact lens care products by silicone hydrogel contact lenses. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004; 45: E‐Abstract 1573.
  • Andrasko G, Ryen K. A series of evaluations of MPS and silicone hydrogel lens combinations. Rev Cornea Contact Lenses [serial on the Internet]. March 2007; 143: 36–42. Available from: http://www.staininggrid.com/docs/Andrasko_staininggrid_ROCCL.pdf.
  • Ikeda T, Ledwith A, Bamford CH, Hann RA. Interaction of a polymeric biguanide biocide with phospholipid membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1984; 769: 57–66.
  • Ikeda T, Tazuke S, Watanabe M. Interaction of biologically active molecules with phospholipid membranes. I. Fluorescence depolarization studies on the effect of polymeric biocide bearing biguanide groups in the main chain. Biochim Biophys Acta 1983; 735: 380–386.
  • Bright FV, Maziarz P, Liu XM, Zhang JZ, Merchea MM. Using a liposome cell membrane model to evaluate corneal surface integrity with high dosage polyaminopropyl biguanide (PHMB) exposure. The Annual Global Specialty Lens Symposium; 2010 January 27–30; Las Vegas, Nevada.
  • Ghosh S, Bell R. Liposomes. Applications in protein‐lipid interaction studies. Mol Cell Biochem 2002; 199: 49–60.
  • Merchant TE, Lass JH, Roat MI, Skelnik DL, Glonek T. P‐31 NMR analysis of phospholipids from cultured human corneal epithelial, fibroblast and endothelial cells. Curr Eye Res 1990; 9: 1167–1176.
  • Bright FV, Maziarz P, Liu XM, Zhang JZ, Merchea MM. PHMB and PQ‐1 impact on a liposome corneal surface membrane model. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: E‐Abstract 6491.
  • Blackburn RS, Harvey A, Kettle LL, Payne JD, Russell SJ. Sorption of poly(hexamethylenebiguanide) on cellulose: mechanism of binding and molecular recognition. Langmuir 2006; 22: 5636–5644.
  • Ehlers N. Electron microscopic examination of the superficial epithelial cells. Acta Ophthalmol 1965; 43: 60–66.
  • Vellonen KS, Hakli M, Merezhinskaya N, Tervo T, Honkakoski P, Urtti A. Monocarboxylate transport in human corneal epithelium and cell lines. Eur J Pharm Sci 2010; 39: 241–247.
  • Baumgartner E, Fernandez‐prini R, Turyn D. Change of apparent acidity constant of indicators in polyelectrolyte solutions. J Chem Soc, Faraday Trans 1 1974; 70: 1518–1526.
  • Gipson IK, Argueso P. Role of mucins in the function of the corneal and conjunctival epithelia. Int Rev Cytol 2003; 231: 1–49.
  • Linden SK, Mcguckin MA. Microbes at the host surface. In: Mendez‐vilas A ed. Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, 2nd ed. Badajoz, Spain: Formatex Research Center, 2010. p 591–596.
  • Chang DC, Grant GB, O'donnell K, Wannemuehler KA, Noble‐wang J, Rao CY, Jacobson LM et al. Multistate outbreak of Fusarium keratitis associated with use of a contact lens solution. JAMA 2006; 296: 953–963.
  • Seal DV, Kirkness CM, Bennett HG, Peterson M. Acanthamoeba keratitis in Scotland: risk factors for contact lens wearers. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 1999; 22: 58–68.
  • Bantseev V, Mccanna DJ, Driot JY, Ward KW, Sivak JG. Biocompatibility of contact lens solutions using confocal laser scanning microscopy and the in vitro bovine cornea. Eye Contact Lens 2007; 33: 308–316.
  • Cavet ME, Harrington KL, Vandermeid KR, Ward KW, Zhang JZ. Comparison of the effect of multipurpose contact lens solutions on the viability of cultured corneal epithelial cells. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2009; 32: 171–175.
  • Cavet ME, Vandermeid KR, Harrington KL, Tchao R, Ward KW, Zhang JZ. Effect of a novel multipurpose contact lens solution on human corneal epithelial barrier function. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2010; 33 Suppl 1: S18–S23.
  • Choy CK, Cho P, Boost MV, Benzie IF. Do multipurpose solutions damage porcine corneal epithelial cells? Optom Vis Sci 2009; 86: E447–E453.
  • Mccanna DJ, Harrington KL, Driot JY, Ward KW, Tchao R. Use of a human corneal epithelial cell line for screening the safety of contact lens care solutions in vitro. Eye Contact Lens 2008; 34: 6–12.
  • Gordon A, Kracher GP. Corneal infiltrates and extended‐wear contact lenses. J Am Optom Assoc 1985; 56: 198–201.
  • Kanno Y, Loewenstein WR. Intercellular diffusion. Science 1964; 143: 959–960.
  • Hanna C, O'brien JE. Cell production and migration in the epithelial layer of the cornea. Arch Ophthalmol 1960; 64: 536–539.
  • Berlin RD, Oliver JM, Walter RJ. Surface functions during mitosis I: phagocytosis, pinocytosis and mobility of surface‐bound Con A. Cell 1978; 15: 327–341.
  • Stein LS, Stein DW, Echols J, Burghardt RC. Concomitant alterations of desmosomes, adhesiveness, and diffusion through gap junction channels in a rat ovarian transformation model system. Exp Cell Res 1993; 207: 19–32.
  • Weed KH, Macewen CJ, Mcghee CN. The Dundee University Scottish Keratoconus Study II: a prospective study of optical and surgical correction. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2007; 27: 561–567.
  • Guillon M, Maissa C. Bulbar conjunctival staining in contact lens wearers and non lens wearers and its association with symptomatology. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2005; 28: 67–73.
  • Yokoi N, Kinoshita S. Importance of conjunctival epithelial evaluation in the diagnostic differentiation of dry eye from drug‐induced epithelial keratopathy. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 438: 827–830.
  • Nichols KK, Nichols JJ, Mitchell GL. The lack of association between signs and symptoms in patients with dry eye disease. Cornea 2004; 23: 762–770.
  • Begley CG, Edrington TB, Chalmers RL. Effect of lens care systems on corneal fluorescein staining and subjective comfort in hydrogel lens wearers. Int Contact Lens Clin 1994; 21: 7–13.
  • Santodomingo‐rubido J, Barrado‐navascues E, Rubido‐crespo MJ, Sugimoto K, Sawano T. Compatibility of two new silicone hydrogel contact lenses with three soft contact lens multipurpose solutions. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2008; 28: 373–381.
  • Santodomingo‐rubido J, Barrado‐navascues E, Rubido‐crespo MJ. Ocular surface comfort during the day assessed by instant reporting in different types of contact and non‐contact lens wearers. Eye Contact Lens 2010; 36: 96–100.
  • Zigler L, Cedrone R, Evans D, Helbert‐green C, Shah T. Clinical evaluation of silicone hydrogel lens wear with a new multipurpose disinfection care product. Eye Contact Lens 2007; 33: 236– 243.
  • Young G, Keir N, Hunt C, Woods CA. Clinical evaluation of long‐term users of two contact lens care preservative systems. Eye Contact Lens 2009; 35: 50–58.
  • Michaud L, Giasson CJ. Overwear of contact lenses: increased severity of clinical signs as a function of protein adsorption. Optom Vis Sci 2002; 79: 184–192.
  • Maldonado‐codina C, Morgan PB, Schnider CM, Efron N. Short‐term physiologic response in neophyte subjects fitted with hydrogel and silicone hydrogel contact lenses. Optom Vis Sci 2004; 81: 911–921.
  • Situ P, Simpson T, Fonn D. Clinical measures do not discriminate symptomatic and asymptomatic contact lens wearers. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40: s909.
  • Meadows DL, Ramsey A, Garofalo R, Ketelson H, Desousa R, Baker J. The effect of contact lenses and care solutions on conjunctival staining and lens parameters. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2009; 50: E‐Abstract 5652.
  • Situ P, Simpson TL, Jones LW, Fonn D. Effects of silicone hydrogel contact lens wear on ocular surface sensitivity to tactile, pneumatic mechanical, and chemical stimulation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 6111–6117.
  • Carnt N, Willcox MD, Evans V, Naduvilath TJ, Tilia D, Papas EB, Sweeney DF et al. Corneal staining: The IER Matrix Study. Contact Lens Spectrum [serial on the Internet]. 2007; 22: 38–43. Available from: http://www.clspectrum.com/articleViewer.aspx?articleID=100843.
  • Adatia FA, Michaeli‐cohen A, Naor J, Caffery B, Bookman A, Slomovic A. Correlation between corneal sensitivity, subjective dry eye symptoms and corneal staining in Sjogren's syndrome. Can J Ophthalmol 2004; 39: 767–771.
  • Pult H, Murphy PJ, Purslow C. A novel method to predict the dry eye symptoms in new contact lens wearers. Optom Vis Sci 2009; 86: E1042–E1050.
  • Carnt NA, Keay L, Naduvilath T, Holden B, Willcox M. Risk factors associated with corneal inflammation in soft contact lens daily wear. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2007; 48: E‐Abstract 4326.
  • Ward KW. Superficial punctate fluorescein staining of the ocular surface. Optom Vis Sci 2008; 85: 8–16.
  • Carnt N, Jalbert I, Stretton S, Naduvilath T, Papas E. Solution toxicity in soft contact lens daily wear is associated with corneal inflammation. Optom Vis Sci 2007; 84: 309–315.
  • Qazi Y, Cruzat A, Baniasadi N, Zheng L, Witkin D, Critser DB, Watts A et al. Early effects of contact lens wear on immune cell density of the ocular surface: preliminary results of a laser in vivo confocal microscopy study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: E‐Abstract 6551.
  • Ibrahim OM, Matsumoto Y, Dogru M, Adan ES, Wakamatsu TH, Goto T, Negishi K et al. The efficacy, sensitivity, and specificity of in vivo laser confocal microscopy in the diagnosis of meibomian gland dysfunction. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 665–672.
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Summary Minutes of the Medical Devices Advisory Committee, Ophthalmic Devices Panel. Washington, DC. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/08/minutes/2008‐4363m1.pdf. October 12, 2011.
  • Andrasko G, Ryen K. The Staining Grid. 2011 [updated 2011; cited 2011 October 25]; Available from: http://www.staininggrid.com/.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.