Integrated Approaches, Multiple Scales: Snag Dynamics in Burned Versus Unburned LandscapesFootnote∗

∗Funding for this research was granted from the U.S.D.A. Forest Service (Project with 100-ha grids) and from the Bureau of Land Management (Project with 1-ha plots) through their SW Fire Initiative and the Ecological Restoration Institute. For assistance measuring snags, we extend our thanks to Doug Koenig, Sara Alberts, Debra Bernardos, Shaula Hedwall, David Passovoy, Ben Solvesky, and Fenner Yarborough. For assistance with ArcGIS analyses, we thank John Prather.

Literature Cited

• Block , W. M. and Brennan , L. A. 1993 . The habitat concept in ornithology . Current Ornithology , 1 : 35 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Chambers , C. L. and Mast , J. N. 2005 . Ponderosa pine snag dynamics and cavity excavation following wildfire in northern Arizona . Forest Ecology and Management , 216 : 227 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers , C. L. , Carrigan , T. , Sabin , T. , Tappeiner , J. and McComb , W. C. 1997 . Use of artificially created Douglas-fir snags by cavity-nesting birds . Western Journal of Applied Forestry , 12 : 93 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Cliff , A. D. and Ord , J. K. 1973 . Spatial autocorrelation , London : Pion .
   Google Scholar
• Cliff , A. D. 1981 . Spatial processes: Models and applications , London : Pion .
   Google Scholar
• Covington , W. W. , Everett , R. L. , Steele , R. W. , Irwin , L. I. , Daer , T. A. and Auclair , A. N. D. 1994 . Historical and anticipated changes in forest ecosystems of the Inland West of the United States . Journal of Sustainable Forestry , 2 : 13 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• DeGomez , T. 2003 . Pine bark beetle outbreak in Arizona http://www.wildfirelessons.net/documents/April2003BarkBeetles.pdf(last accessed 10 July 2006)
   Google Scholar
• Diggle , P. J. 1983 . Statistical analysis of spatial point patterns , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• ESRI Software ArcGIS 9.0 . 2004 . Environmental Systems Research Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Ganey , J. L. 1999 . Snag density and composition of snag populations on two National Forests in northern Arizona . Forest Ecology and Management , 117 : 169 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodchild , M. F. 1992 . Geographical information science . International Journal of Geographical Information Systems , 6 : 31 – 45 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haines-Young , R. , Green , D. and Cousins , S. 1993 . Landscape ecology and geographic information systems , London : Taylor and Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , L. S. and Mannan , R. W. 1999 . Multiscaled habitat selection by elegant trogons in southeastern Arizona . Journal of Wildlife Management , 63 : 451 – 61 . (Originally presented at The Wildlife Society First Annual Conference, 1994.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrington , M. G. 1996 . Fall rates of prescribed fire-killed ponderosa pine . Research paper INT-RP-489 . 1996 , Ogden, UT. pp. 7 Intermountain Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , D. H. 1980 . The comparison of usage and availability measurements for evaluating resource preferences . Ecology , 61 : 65 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight , D. H. and Wallace , L. L. 1989 . The Yellowstone fires: Issues in landscape ecology . BioScience , 39 : 700 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kupfer , J. A. 1995 . Landscape ecology and biogeography . Progress in Physical Geography , 19 : 18 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legendre , P. and Fortin , M. 1989 . Spatial pattern and ecological analysis . Vegetatio , 80 : 107 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Lofroth , E. C. 1993 . Scale dependent analyses of habitat selection by marten in the sub-boreal spruce biogeoclimatic zone, British Columbia. M.S. thesis, Simon Fraser University, BC
   Google Scholar
• Lotwick , H. W. and Silverman , B. W. 1982 . Methods for analyzing spatial processes of several types of points . Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Bulletin , 44 : 406 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Mast , J. N. 2003 . “ Tree response to restoration in ponderosa pine forests of the southwest ” . In Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine forest , Edited by: Friederici , P. 215 – 32 . Washington, DC : Island Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mast , J. N. , Fulé , P. Z. , Moore , M. M. , Covington , W. W. and Waltz , A. E. M. 1999 . Restoration of presettlement age structure of an Arizona ponderosa pine forest . Ecological Applications , 9 : 228 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mast , J. N. and Veblen , T. T. 1994 . A dendrochronological method of studying tree mortality patterns . Physical Geography , 15 : 529 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mast , J. N. 1999 . Tree spatial patterns and stand development along the pine-grassland ecotone in the Colorado Front Range . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 29 : 575 – 84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mast , J. N. and Wolf , J. 2004 . Ecotonal changes and altered tree spatial patterns in lower mixed-conifer forests, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, U.S.A . Landscape Ecology , 19 : 167 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarigal , K. and Marks , B. J. 1995 . “ FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure ” . In USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-351 Portland, OR
   Google Scholar
• McGarigal , K. and McComb , W. C. 1995 . Relationships between landscape structure and breeding birds in the Oregon coast range . Ecological Monographs , 65 : 235 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran , P. A. P. 1950 . Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena . Biometrika , 37 : 17 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odland , J. 1988 . Spatial autocorrelation , London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Rabe , M. J. , Morrel , T. E. , Green , H. , deVos , J. C. Jr. and Miller , C. R. 1998 . Characteristics of ponderosa pine snag roosts used by reproductive bats in northern Arizona . Journal of Wildlife Management , 62 : 612 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raphael , M. G. and White , M. 1984 . Use of snags by cavity-nesting birds in the Sierra Nevada . Wildlife Monographs , 86 : 166
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds , R. T. , Graham , R. T. , Reiser , M. H. , Bassett , R. L. , Kennedy , P. L. , Boyce , D. A. Jr. , Goodwin , G. , Smith , R. and Fisher , E. L. 1992 . “ Management recommendations for the northern goshawk in the Southwestern United States ” . In General Technical Report RM-217, Fort Collins, CO. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station 90
   Google Scholar
• Ripley , B. D. 1977 . Modeling spatial patterns . Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Bulletin , 39 : 172 – 212 .
   Google Scholar
• Ripley , B. D. 1981 . Spatial statistics , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Saab , V. A. , Bock , C. E. , Rich , T. D. and Dobkin , D. S. 1995 . “ Livestock grazing effects in western North America ” . In Ecology and management of neotropical migratory birds , Edited by: Martin , T. E. and Finch , D. M. 311 – 56 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scott , V. E. 1978 . Characteristics of ponderosa pine snags used by cavity-nesting birds in Arizona . Journal of Forestry , 76 : 26 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott , V. E. 1979 . Bird response to snag removal in ponderosa pine . Journal of Forestry , 77 : 26 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott , V. E. and Patton , D. R. 1989 . Cavity-nesting birds of Arizona and New Mexico forests . USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-10 , : 71
   Google Scholar
• Spies , T. A. , Ripple , W. J. and Bradshaw , G. A. 1994 . Dynamics and pattern of a managed coniferous forest landscape in Oregon . Ecological Applications , 4 : 555 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes , M. A. and Smiley , T. L. 1996 . An introduction to tree-ring dating , Chicago : Tucson: University of Arizona Press . (Originally published 1968; University of Chicago Press.)
   Google Scholar
• Turner , M. G. and Gardner , R. H. 1991 . Quantitative methods in landscape ecology: The analysis and interpretation of landscape heterogeneity , New York : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , M. G. , Gardner , R. H. and O'Neill , R. V. 2001 . Landscape ecology in theory and practice: Pattern and process , New York : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Upton , G. J. G. and Fingleton , B. 1985 . Spatial data analysis by example. Volume 1: Point pattern and quantitative data , London : Wiley .
   Google Scholar