469
Views
130
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

A review of measurement and modelling results of particle atmosphere–surface exchange

, , , , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 42-75 | Received 01 Oct 2006, Accepted 21 Jun 2007, Published online: 18 Jan 2017

Reference

  • Albertson, J.D., Parlange, M.B., Katul, G.G., Chu, C., Stricker, H. and co-authors. 1995. Sensible heat flux from arid regions: a simple flux-variance method. Water Resour Res. 31, 969–973.
  • Allan, J., Jimenez, J.L., Williams, P.I., Alfarra, M.R., Bower, K.N. and co-authors. 2003. Quantitative sampling using an Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer 1. Techniques of data interpretation and error analysis. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 4090, 10.4010.1029/2002JD002358.
  • Allen, A.G., Harrison, R.M. and Nicholson, K.W. 1991. Dry deposition of fine aerosol to a short grass surface. Atmos. Environ. 25A, 2671–2676.
  • Alley, R., Berntsen, T., Bindoff, N., Chen, Z., Chidthaisong, A. and co-authors. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Summary for Policymakers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
  • Ammann, C. and Meixner, F.X. 2002. Stability dependence of the relaxed eddy accumulation coefficient for various scalar quantities. J. Geophys. Res. 107, Art #4071.
  • Aubinet, M., Berbigier, P., Bernhofer, C., Cescatti, A., Feigenwinter, C. and co-authors. 2005. Comparing CO2 storage and advection conditions at night at different Carboeuroflux sites. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 116, 63–94.
  • Aubinet, M., Grelle, A., Ibrom, A., Rannilc, U., Moncrieff, J. and co-authors. 2000. Estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of forests: the EUROFLUX methodology. Adv. Ecol. Res. 30, 113–175.
  • Bache, D.H. 1979a. Particle transport within plant canopies-I. A frame-work for analysis. Atmos. Environ. 13, 1257–1262.
  • Bache, D.H. 1979b. Particulate transport within plant canopies- II. Prediction of deposition velocities. Atmos. Environ. 13, 1681–1687.
  • Binkowski, F.S. and Shanlcar, U. 1995. The regional particulate matter model. Part I: model description and preliminary results. J. Geophys. Res. 100, 26191–26209.
  • Birsan, F. 2005. Particle Dry Deposition to a Forest Canopy. A Flux Based Analytical Model. M.S. Thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.
  • Branford, D., Fowler, D. and Moghaddam, M.V. 2004. Study of aerosol deposition at a wind exposed forest edge using Pb-210 and Cs-137 soil inventories. Water Air Soil Pollut. 157, 107–116.
  • Brook, J.R., Zhang, L., Di-Giovanni, F. and Padro, J. 1999. Description and evaluation of a model of deposition velocities for routine estimates of air pollutant dry deposition over North America. Part I: model development. Atmos. Environ. 33, 5037–5051.
  • Burkhardt, J., Peters, K. and Crossley, A. 1995. The presence of structural surface waxes on coniferous needles affects the pattern of dry deposition of fine particles. J. Exp. BoL 46, 823–831.
  • Businger, J.A. 1986. Evaluation of the accuracy with which dry deposition can be measured with current micrometeorological techniques. J. Clim. Appl. MeteoroL 25, 1100–1124.
  • Businger, J.A. and Oncley, S.P. 1990. Flux measurement with conditional sampling. J. Atmos. Oceanic TechnoL 7, 349–352.
  • Buzorius, G., Rannilc, C., Makela, J.M., Keronen, P., Vesala, T. and Kulmala, M. 2000. Vertical aerosol fluxes measured by the eddy covariance method and deposition of nucleation mode particles above a Scots pine forest in southern Finland. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 19905–19916.
  • Buzorius, G., Rannilc, Ü., Mäkeld, J.M., Vesala, T. and Kulmala, M. 1998. Vertical aerosol particle fluxes measured by eddy covariance technique using condensational particle counter. J. Aerosol. Sci. 29, 157–171.
  • Buzorius, G., Rannilc, C., Nilsson, D. and Kulmala, M. 2001. Vertical fluxes and micrometeorology during aerosol particle formation events. Tellus 53B, 394–495.
  • Buzorius, G., Rannilc, O., Nilsson, ED., Vesala, T. and Kulmala, M. 2003. Analysis of measurement techniques to determine dry deposition velocities of aerosol particles with diameters less than 100 nm. J. Aerosol. Sci. 34, 747–764.
  • Chamberlain, A.C. 1966. Transport of gases to and from grass and rgass-like surfaces. Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond., A 290, 236–265.
  • Chamberlain, A.C. 1967. Transport of Lycopodium Spores and other small particles to rough surfaces. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Series A, Math. Phys. Sci. 296, 45–70.
  • Csanady, G.T. 1973. Turbulent Diffusion in the Environment. Reidel, Dordrecht, Holland.
  • Dabberdt, W., Lenschow, D., Horst, T., Zimmerman, P., Oncley, S. and Delany, A. 1993. Atmosphere-surface exchange measurements. Science 260, 1472–1481.
  • Dai, W., Davidson, CJ., Etyemezian, V. and Zufall, M. 2001. Wind tunnel studies of particle transport and deposition in turbulent boundary flows. Aerosol. Sci. TechnoL 35, 887–898.
  • Davidson, CJ., Miller, J.M. and Pleskow, MA. 1982. The influence of surface structure on predicted particle dry deposition to natural grass canopies. Water Air Soil Pollut. 18, 25–43.
  • Davidson, C.L. and Wu, Y.L. 1990. Dry deposition of particle and vapors. In: Acidic Precipitation. Volume 3: Sources, Deposition and Canopy Interaction (eds S.E. Linberg, AL. Page and S.A. Norton). Springer-Verlag, New York, 103–209.
  • Davies, T.D. and Nicholson, K.W. 1982. Dry deposition velocities of aerosol sulphate in rural eastern England. In: Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants (eds H.W. Georgii and J. Panlcrath). D. Reidel Publishing Company, Oberursel/Taunus, Germany, 31–42.
  • De Jong, J.M. and Klaassen, W. 1997. Simulated dry deposition of nitric acid near forest edges. Atmos. Environ. 31, 3681–3691.
  • Desjardins, R.L. 1977. Description and evaluation of sensible heat flux detector. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 11, 147–154.
  • Dollard, G.J. and Unsworth, M.H. 1983. Field measurements of turbulent fluxes of wind-driven fog drops to a grass surface. Atmos. Environ. 17, 775–780.
  • Dollard, G., Unsworth, M.H. and Harve, M.J. 1983. Pollutant transfer in upland regions by occult precipitation. Nature 302, 241–243.
  • Donat, J. and Ruck, B. 1999. Simulated ground deposition of fine air-borne particles in an array of idealized tree crowns. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 93, 469–492.
  • Donateo, A., Contini, D. and Belosi, F. 2006. Real time measurements of PM2.5 concentrations and vertical turbulent fluxes using an optical detector. Atmos. Environ. 40, 1346–1360.
  • Doran, J.C. and Droppo, J.G. 1983. Profiles of elements in the surface boundary layer. In: Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension (ed RR. Pruppacher). Elsevier Science Publishing Company, New York, Sanata Monica, California, 1003–1011.
  • Dorsey, J.R. 2002. Aspects of Biosphere Atmosphere Exchange and Chemical Processing of Aerosol. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K.
  • Dorsey, JR., Nemitz, E., Gallagher, KW., Fowler, D., Williams, P.I. and co-authors. 2002. Direct measurements and parameterisation of aerosol flux, concentration and emission velocity above a city. Atmos. Environ. 36, 791–800.
  • Draaijers, G.P.J., Vanek, R. and Bleuten, W. 1994. Atmospheric deposition in complex forest landscapes. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 69, 343–366.
  • Droppo, J.G. 1979. Experimental techniques for dry-deposition measurements. In: Second Life Sciences Symposium: Potential Environmental and Health Consequences of Atmospheric Sulfur Deposition (eds D.S. Shriner, C.R. Richmond and S.E. Lindberg). Ann Arbor Science, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 209–221.
  • Duan, B., Fairall, C.W. and Thomson, D.W. 1988. Eddy correlation measurements of the dry deposition of particles in wintertime. J. AppL MeteoroL 27, 642–652.
  • Duyzer, J., Weststrate, H., Beswick, K. and Gallagher, KW. 1994. Measurements of the dry deposition flux of sulphate and nitrate aerosols to the Speulderbos using micrometeorological methods. Report No. MW-R94/255, Energie Onderzoek Centrum Nederland (ECN).
  • Edson, J.B., Fairall, C.W., Meystayer, PG. and Larsen, S.E. 1991. A study of the inertial dissipation method for computing air-sea fluxes. J. Geophys. Res. 96, 10689–10771.
  • Erisman, J., Draaijers, G., Duyzer, J., Hofschreuder, R, Van Leeuwen, N. and co-authors. 1997. Particle deposition to forests-summary of results and application. Atmos. Environ. 31, 321–332.
  • Everett, R.G., Hicks, B.B., Berg, W.W. and Winchester, J.W. 1979. An analysis of particulate sulfur and lead gradient data collected at Argonne National Laboratory. Atmos. Environ. 13, 931–934.
  • Fairall, C.W. 1984. Interpretation of eddy-correlation measurements of particulate deposition and aerosol flux. Atmos. Environ. 18, 1329–1337.
  • Fairall, C.W., Edson, J.B., Larsen, S.E. and Mestayer, PG. 1990. Inertial-dissipation air-sea flux measurements: a prototype system using realtime spectral computations. J. Atmos. Oceanic TechnoL 7, 425–453.
  • Finkelstein, P.L. and Sims, P.F. 2001. Sampling error in eddy correlation flux measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 3503-3510,
  • Foken, T., Dlugi, R. and Kramm, G. 1995. On the determination of dry deposition and emission of gaseous compounds at the biosphere-atmosphere interface. MeteoroL Zeitschrift 4, 91–118.
  • Fontan, J., Lopez, A., Lamaud, E. and Druilhet, A. 1997. Exchange of particles: vertical flux measurements of submicronic aerosol particles and parameterization of the dry deposition velocity. In: Biosphere-Atmosphere Exchange of Pollutants and Trace Substances Volume 4 (ed S. Slanina)., Springer, Berlin, 382–390.
  • Fowler, D. and Duyzer, J. 1989. Micrometeorological techniques for the measurement of trace gas exchange. In: Exchange of Trace Gases Between Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Atmosphere (eds M.O. Aneae and D.S. dr Schimel). Wiley and Sons, London, 189–207.
  • Fowler, D., Morse, A.P., Gallagher, KW. and Choularton, T.W. 1990. Measurements of cloud water deposition on vegetation using a lysimeter and a flux gradient technique. Tellus 42B, 285–293.
  • Freer-Smith, PH., Beckett, K.P. and Taylor, G.E. 2005. Deposition velocities to Sorbus aria, Acer campestre, Populus deltoides X trichocarpa `Beaupre', Pinus nigra and X cupressocyparis leylandii for coarse, fine and ultra-fine particles in the urban environment. Environ. PonuL 133, 157–167.
  • Fuchs, N.A. 1964. The Mechanics of Aerosols. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
  • Galbally, I.E., Garland, J.A. and Wilson, M.J.G. 1979. Sulphur uptake from the atmosphere by forest and farmland. Nature 280, 49–50.
  • Gallagher, KW., Beswick, K., Choularton, T.W., Coe, H., Fowler, D. and Hargreaves, K. 1992a. Measurements and modelling of cloudwater deposition to moorland and forests. Environ. PonuL 75, 97–107.
  • Gallagher, KW., Beswick, K.M. and Choularton, T.W. 1992b. Measurement and modelling of cloudwater deposition to a snow-covered forest canopy. Atmos. Environ. 26A, 2893–2903.
  • Gallagher, M., Beswick, K., Duyzer, J., Westrate, H., Choularton, T. and co-authors. 1997a. Measurements of aerosol fluxes to Speulder forest using a micrometeorological technique. Atmos. Environ. 31, 359–373.
  • Gallagher, KW., Choularton, T.W., Morse, A.P. and Fowler, D. 1988. Measurements of the size dependence of cloud droplet deposition at a hill site. Quart. J. Roy. MeteoroL Soc. 114, 1291–1303.
  • Gallagher, M., Fontan, J., Wyers, P., Ruijgrok, W., Duyzer, J. and co-authors. 1997b. Atmospheric particles and their interactions with natural surfaces. In: Biosphere-Atmosphere Exchange of Pollutants and Trace Substances Volume 4 (ed S. Slanina)., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 45–92.
  • Gallagher, KW., Nemitz, E., Dorsey, JR., Fowler, D., Sutton, MA. and co-authors. 2002. Measurements and parameterizations of small aerosol deposition velocities to grassland, arable crops, and forest: influence of surface roughness length on deposition. J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos. 107, art #4154.
  • Gaman, A., Rannilc, U., Aalto, R, Pohja, T., Siivola, E. and co-authors. 2004. Relaxed eddy accumulation system for size resolved aerosol particle flux measurements. J. Atmos. Oceanic TechnoL 21, 933–943.
  • Garland, J.A. 1981. Field measurements of the dry deposition of small particles to grass. In: Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants (eds H.W. Georgii and J. Panlcrath). D. Reidel, Oberursel/Tanus, West Germany, 9–16.
  • Gillette, D.A., Lawson, R. and Thompson, R. 2004a. A ‘test of concept’ comparison of aerodynamic and mechanical resuspension mechanisms for particles deposited on field rye grass (Secale cercele) -Part 1. Relative particle flux rates. Atmos. Environ. 38, 4789–4797.
  • Gillette, D.A., Lawson, R. and Thompson, R. 2004b. A ‘test of concept’ comparison of aerodynamic and mechanical resuspension mechanisms for particles deposited on field rye grass (Secale cercele) - Part 2. Threshold mechanical energies for resuspension particle fluxes. Atmos. Environ. 38, 4799–4803.
  • Giorgi, F. 1986. A particle dry-deposition parameterization scheme for use in tracer transport models. J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos. 91, 9794–9806.
  • Goldenberg, M. and Brook, J.R. 1997. Dry deposition of nonspherical particles on natural and surrogate surfaces. Aerosol. Sci. TechnoL 27, 22–38.
  • Golomb, D., Barry, E., Fisher, G., Varanusupalcul, P., Koleda, M. and co-authors. 2001. Atmospheric distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons near New England coastal waters. Atmos. Environ. 35, 6245-6258.
  • Goudriaan, J. 1977. Crop Micrometeorology: A Simulation Study. Pudoc, Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, The Netherlands.
  • Gravenhorst, G. and Hoflcen, K.D. 1982. Concentration of aerosol constituents above and beneath a beech and a spruce forest canopy. In: Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants (eds H.W. Georgii and J. Pankrath). D. Reidel Publishing Company, Oberursel/Taunus, Germany, 187–190.
  • Grönholm, T., Hiltunen, V., Aalto, RP., Laakso, L., Rinne, J. and co-authors. 2007. Measurements of aerosol particle dry deposition velocities using relaxed eddy accumulation technique. Tellus 59, 381–386.
  • Gronlund, A., Nilsson, D., Koponen, LK., Virlcicula, A. and Hansson, M.E. 2002. Aerosol dry deposition measured with eddy-covariance technique at Wasa and Aboa, Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Ann. GlacioL 35, 355–361.
  • Hasager, C.B., Nielsen, N.W., Jensen, NO., Boegh, E., Christensen, J.H. and co-authors. 2003. Effective roughness calculated from satellite-derived land cover maps and hedge-information used in a weather forecasting model. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 109, 227–254.
  • Held, A., Hinz, K., Trimborn, A., Spengler, B. and Klemm, O. 2003. Towards direct measurement of turbulent vertical fluxes of compounds in atmospheric aerosol particles. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 10.1029/2003GL017854.
  • Hicks, B.B., Matt, D.R., McMillen, R.T., Womack, J.D., Wesley, M.L. and co-authors. 1989. A field investigation of sulfate fluxes to a deciduous forest. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 13003–13011.
  • Hicks, B.B. and McMillen, R.T. 1984. A simulation of the eddy accumulation method for measuring pollutant fluxes. J. Clim. AppL MeteoroL 23, 637–643.
  • Hicks, B.B., Meyers, T., Hosker Jr, R. and Artz, R. 2001. Climatological features of regional surface air quality from the Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network (AIRMoN) in the USA. Atmos. Environ. 35, 1053–1068.
  • Hicks, B.B. and Weseley, M.L. 1979. Turbulent transfer processes to a surface and interaction with vegetation. In: Second Life Sciences Symposium: Potential Environmental and Health Consequences of Atmospheric Sulfur Deposition (eds D.S. Shriner, C.R. Richmond and S.E. Lindberg). Ann Arbor Science, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, pp. 199–207.
  • Hicks, B.B., Weseley, M.L., Coulter, R.L., Hart, R.L., Durham, J.L., Speer, R.E. and Stedman, D.H. 1983. An experimental study of sulfur deposition to grassland. In: Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension (eds H.R. Pruppacher, R.G. Semonin and W.G.N. Slinn). Elsevier Science Publishing Company, New York, Sanata Monica, California, pp. 933–942.
  • Hicks, B.B., Wesley, M.L., Coulter, R.L., Hart, R.L., Durham, J.L., Speer, R. and Stedman, D.H. 1986. An experimental study of sulfur and NOx fluxes over grassland. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 103–121.
  • Hicks, B.B., Wesley, M.L., Durham, J.L. and Brown, M.A. 1982. Some direct measurements of atmospheric sulfur fluxes over a pine plantation. Atmos. Environ. 16, 2899–2903.
  • Hicks, B.B. and Williams, R.M. 1979. Transfer and deposition of particles to water surfaces. In: Second Life Sciences Symposium: Potential Environmental and Health Consequences of Atmospheric Sulfur Deposition (eds D.S. Shriner, C.R. Richmond and S.E. Lindberg). Ann Arbor Science, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, pp. 237–244.
  • Hidy, G.M., Hales, J.M., Roth, P.M. and Scheffe, R. 2000. Fine particles and oxidant pollution: developing an agenda for cooperative research. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 50, 613–632.
  • Hofken, K.D. and Gravenhorst, G. 1982. Deposition of atmospheric aerosol particles to beech- and spruce forest. In: Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants (eds H.W. Georgii and J. Panlcrath). D. Reidel Publishing Company, Oberursel/Taunus, Germany, 191–194.
  • Högstriim, U. 1988. Non-dimensional wind and temperature profiles in the atmospheric surface layer: a re-evaluation. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 42, 55–79.
  • Horst, T. 1997. A simple formula for attenuation of eddy fluxes measured with first-order-response scalar sensors. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 82, 219–233.
  • Horvath, L. 2003. Dry deposition velocity of PM2.5 ammonium sulfate particles to a Norway spruce forest on the basis of S- and N- balance estimations. Atmos. Envirion. 37, 4419–4424.
  • Hosker, R.P. and Lindberg, S. 1982. Review: atmospheric deposition and plant assimilation of gases and particles. Atmos. Environ. 16,889–910.
  • Hummelshoj, P. 1994. Dry Deposition of Particles and Gases. Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Denmark.
  • IPCC 2001. IPCC Third Assessment Report. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
  • Ivens, W.P.M., Kauppi, P., Alcamo, J. and Posch, M. 1990. Sulfur deposition onto European forests: throughfall data and model estimates. Tellus 42B, 294–303.
  • Jagels, R. 1991. Biophysical aspects of fog deposition on the needles of three conifers. J. Exp. Botany 42, 757–763.
  • Kaimal, J.C. and Finnigan, J.J. 1994. Atmospheric Boundary Layer Flows: Their Structure and Measurement. Oxford University Press, New York.
  • Katen, P.C. and Hubbe, J.M. 1983. Size-resolved measurements by eddy-correlation of the dry deposition velocity of atmospheric aerosol particles. In: Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension (eds RR. Pruppacher, R.G. Semonin and W.G.N. Slinn). Elsevier Science, Sanat Monica, California, 953–961.
  • Katen, P.C. and Hubbe, J.M. 1985. An evaluation of optical particle counter measurements of the dry deposition of atmospheric aerosol particles. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 2145–2160.
  • Kowalski, A. 2001. Deliquescence induces eddy covariance and estimable dry deposition errors. Atmos. Environ. 35, 4843–4851.
  • Kowalski, A.S., Anthoni, P.M., Vong, R.J., Delany, A.C. and Maclean, G.D. 1997. Deployment and evaluation of a system for ground-based measurement of cloud liquid water turbulent fluxes. J. Atmos. Oceanic TechnoL 14,468–479.
  • Kowalski, A.S. and Vong, R.J. 1999. Near-surface fluxes of cloud water evolve vertically. Quarter J. Roy. MeteoroL Soc. 125, 2663–2684.
  • Kramm, G., Beheng, K.-D. and Muller, H. 1992. Modeling of the vertical transport of polydispersed aerosol particles in the atmospheric surface layer. In: Precipitation Scavenging and Atmosphere-Surface Exchange Processes Volume 2 (eds S.E. Schwartz and W.G.N. Slinn). Hemisphere Publishers, Washington/Philadelphia/London, 1125-1141.
  • Kramm, G., Beier, N., Dlugi, R. and Muller, H. 1999. Evaluation of conditional sampling methods. ContribuL Atmos. Phys. 72, 161–172.
  • Kramm, G. and Dlugi, R. 1994. Modelling the vertical fluxes of nitric acid, ammonia and ammonium nitrate. J. Atmos. Chem. 18, 319–357.
  • Kulmala, M., Hämeri, K., Aalto, P., Mäkelä, J., Pirjola, L. and co-authors. 2001. Overview of the international project on biogenic aerosol formation in the boreal forest (BIOFOR). Tellus 53B, 324–343.
  • Lamaud, E., Brunet, Y., Labatut, A., Lopez, A., Fontan, J. and co-authors. 1994a. The Landes experiment: biosphere-atmosphere exchanges of ozone and aerosol particles above a pine forest. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 16511–16521.
  • Lamaud, E., Chapus, A., Fontan, J. and Serie, E. 1994b. Measurements and parameterization of aerosol dry deposition in a semi-arid area. Atmos. Environ. 28, 2461–2471.
  • Lamaux, E., Labatut, A., Fontan, J., Lopez, A., Druilhet, A. and co-authors. 1994. Biosphere atmosphere exchanges : ozone and aerosol dry deposition velocities over a pine forest. Environ. Monitor Assess. 31, 175–181.
  • Lenschow, D.H. 1995. Micrometeorological technqiues for measuring biosphere-atmosphere trace gase exchange. In: Methods in Ecology, Trcae gases: Measuring Emissions from Soil and Water (eds P.A. Matson and R.C. Harris). Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
  • Lenschow, D., Mann, J. and Kristensen, L. 1994. How long is long enough when measuring fluxes and other turbulence statistics. J. Atmos. Oceanic TechnoL 11, 661–673.
  • Little, P. 1977. Deposition of 2.75,5.0 and 8.5 um particles to plant and soil surfaces. Environ. PolluL 12, 293–305.
  • Longley, ID., Gallagher, MW., Dorsey, J.D. and Flynn, M. 2004a. A case-study of fine particle concentrations and fluxes measured in a busy street canyon in Manchester, UK. Atmos. Environ. 38, 3595–3603.
  • Longley, ID., Gallagher, KW., Dorsey, JR., Flynn, M., Bower, K.N. and co-authors. 2004b. Street canyon aerosol pollutant transport measurements. Sci. Total Envir 334-335, 327–336.
  • Lorenz, R. and Murphy Jr., C.E. 1989. Dry deposition of particles to a pine plantation. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 46, 355–366.
  • Lumley, J.L. and Panofsky, RA. 1964. The Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence. Wiley Interscience, New York.
  • Luo, Y., Yang, X., Carley, R. and Perkins, C. 2002. Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen along the Connecticut coastline of Long Island Sound: a decade of measurements. Atmos. Environ. 36, 4517–4528.
  • Malm, W.C. 2003. Fundamentals of visibility. In: Handbook of Weathet; Climate and Water: Atmospheric Chemistry, Hydrology, and Societal Impacts (eds T.D. Potter and RR. Colman). Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 285–329.
  • Mârtensson, E., Nilsson, ED., de Leeuw, G., Cohen, L. and Hansson, H.C. 2003. Laboratory simulations and parameterization of the primary marine aerosol production. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 10.1029/2002JDO02263.
  • McMurry, P. 2000a. A review of atmospheric aerosol measurements. Atmos. Environ. 34, 1959–1999.
  • McMurry, PH. 2000b. The History of Condensation Nucleus Counters. Aerosol. Sci. TechnoL 33, 297–322.
  • Meyers, T.P., Luke, W.T. and Meisinger, J.J. 2006. Fluxes of ammonia and sulfate over maize using relaxed eddy accumulation. Agric. Forest MeteoroL 136, 203–213.
  • Nemitz, E., Fowler, D., Gallagher, MW., Dorsey, JR., Theobald, KR. and co-authors. 2000a. Measurement and interpretation of land-atmosphere aerosol fluxes: current issues and new approaches. In: EUROTRAC-2 Symposium 2000 (eds P.M. Midgley, M. Reuther and M. Williams). Springer, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 45–53.
  • Nemitz, E., Fowler, D., McDonald, A.G., Theobald, MR., Slciba, U. and co-authors. 2002a. Recent advances in the quantification and parameterisation of the surface atmosphere exchange of atmospheric aerosols Transport and Chemical Transformation in the Troposphere, Proceedings of EUROTRAC Symposium 2002, Margraf Verlag, Weikersheim, Germany, Garmisch- Partenlcirchen, Germany, 23–32.
  • Nemitz, E., Gallagher, MW., Duyzer, J.H. and Fowler, D. 2002b. Micrometeorological measurements of particle deposition velocities to moorland vegetation. Quarter J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 128, 2281–2300.
  • Nemitz, E. and Sutton, M. 2004. Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: ifi. Modelling the influence of the NH3-HNO3-NH4NO3 equilibrium on size-segregated particle fluxes. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 4, 1025–1045.
  • Nemitz, E., Sutton, MA., Wyers, G.P., Otjes, R.P., Mennen, KG. and co-authors. 2004. Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: II. Concentrations and surface exchange fluxes of atmospheric particles. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 4, 1007-1024.
  • Nemitz, E., Sutton, MA., Wyers, G.P., Otjes, R.P., Schjoerring, J.K. and co-authors. 2000b. Surface/atmosphere exchange and chemical inter-action of gases and aerosols over oilseed rape. Agric. Forest MeteoroL 105, 427–445.
  • Nemitz, E., Thomas, R., Phillips, G., Jimenez, J.L., Canagaratna, M. and Worsnop, D. 2006. Insights into surface/atmosphere exchange fluxes and chemical processing of aerosols obtained with a novel eddy-covariance system based on aerosol mass spectroscopy. In: 1st iLEAPS Science Conference, Finnish Association for Aerosol Research (eds K. Haemeri, J. Jokiniemi, V.-M. Kerminen and K. M.). Helsinki; Boulder, Colorado, 160–161.
  • Neumann, H.H. and den Hartog, G. 1985. Eddy correlation measurements of atmospheric fluxes of ozone, sulphur, and particulates during the Champaign intercomparison study. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 2097-2110.
  • Nicholson, K. 1988a. The deposition of small particles: a review of experimental methods. Atmos. Environ. 22, 2653–2666.
  • Nicholson, K. 1988b. A review of particle resuspension. Atmos. Environ. 22,2639–2651.
  • Nicholson, K.W. and Branson, J.R. 1992. Atmosphere-surface exchange of particulates in built-up areas. In: Precipitation Scavenging and Atmosphere-Surface Exchange (eds S.E. Schwartz and W.G.N. Slinn). Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, DC, 673–682.
  • Nicholson, K.W. and Davies, T.D. 1987. Field measurements of the dry deposition of particulate sulphate. Atmos. Environ. 21, 1561–1571.
  • Nilsson, E. and Rannik, U. 2001. Turbulent aerosol fluxes over the Arctic Ocean 1. Dry deposition over sea and pack ice. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 32125–32137.
  • Nilsson, E., Rannik, Ü., Swietlicki, E., Leck, C., Aalto, P. and co-authors. 2001. Turbulent aerosol fluxes over the Arctic Ocean 2. Wind-driven sources from the sea. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 32139–32154.
  • Oncley, S.P., Delany, A.C. and Horst, T.W. 1993. Verification of flux measurement using relaxed eddy accumulation. Atmos. Environ. 27, 2417–2427.
  • Ould-Dada, Z. 2002. Dry deposition profile of small particle within a model spruce canopy. Sci. Total Environ. 286, 83–96.
  • Ould-Dada, Z. and Baghini, N. 2001. Resuspension of small particles from tree surfaces. Atmos. Environ. 35, 3799–3809.
  • Panofsky, M.A. and Dutton, J.A. 1984. Atmospheric Turbulence. Wiley, New York.
  • Park, J.-S., Wade, T. and Sweet, S. 2001. Atmospheric distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and deposition to Galveston Bay, Texas, USA. Atmos. Environ. 35, 3241–3249.
  • Parker, G.G. 1990. Evaluation of dry deposition, pollutant damage, and forest health with throughfall studies. In: Mechanisms of Forest Response to Acidic Deposition (eds A.A. Lucier and S.G. Haines). Springer-Verlag, New York, 245.
  • Paw U.K.T. 1983. The rebound of particles from natural surfaces. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 93, 442–452.
  • Petelski, T. 2003. Marine aerosol fluxes over open sea calculated from vertical concentration gradients. Aerosol. Sci. 34, 359–371.
  • Peters, K. and Eiden, R. 1992. Modelling the dry deposition velocity of aerosol particles to a spruce forest. Atmos. Environ. 26A, 2555–2564.
  • Pilegaard, K., Milckelsen, T., Beier, C., Jensen, NO., Ambus, P. and co-authors 2003. Field measurements of atmosphere-biosphere interactions in a Danish beech forest. Boreal Envir Res. 8, 315–333.
  • Pope, C.A.and Dockery, D.W. 1999. Epidemiology of Particle Effects. In: Air Pollution and Health (eds S. Holgate, H. Koren, J. Samet and R. Maynard). Academic Press Limited, London, UK 674–705.
  • Pryor, S.C. 2006. Size resolved particle deposition velocities of sub-100 nm diameter particles over a forest. Atmos. Environ. 40, 6192–6200.
  • Pryor, S.C. and Binkowski, F.S. 2004. An analysis of the time scales associated with aerosol processes during dry deposition. Aerosol. Sci. TechnoL 38, 1091–1098.
  • Pryor, S.C., Larsen, SE., Sorensen, L.L. and Barthelmie, R.J. 2007a. Particle fluxes above forests: observations, methodological considerations and method comparisons. Environ. Pollution, In press.
  • Pryor, S.C., Larsen, SE., Sorensen, L.L., Barthelmie, R.J., Grönholm, T. and co-authors. 2007b. Particle fluxes over forests: analyses of flux methods and functional dependencies. J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos., 112, D07205, 10.1029/2006JD008066.
  • Rannik, U., Aalto, P., Keronen, P., Vesala, T. and Kulmala, M. 2003. Interpretation of aerosol particle fluxes over a pine forest: dry deposition and random errors. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 4544, 10.4510.1029/2003JDO03542.
  • Rannik, Ü., Petäjä, T., Buzorius, G., Aalto, P., Vesala, T. and co-authors. 2000. Deposition velocities of nucleation mode particles into a Scots pine forest. Environ. Chem. Phys. 22, 97–102.
  • Rattray, G. and Sievering, H. 2001. Dry deposition of ammonia, nitric acid, ammonium and nitrate to alpine tundra at Niwot Ridge, Colorado. Atmos. Environ. 35, 1105–1109.
  • Raupach, M.R. 2001. Inferring biochemical sources and sinks from atmospheric concentrations: general considerations and applications in vegetation canopies. In: Global Biochemical Cycles in the Climate System (eds E.D. Schulze, M. Heimann, S. Harrison, E. Holland, J. Lloyd, LC. Prentice and D. Schimel). Academic Press Inc., San Diego, USA 41–59.
  • Raupach, M.R., Finnigan, J.J. and Brunet, Y. 1996. Coherent eddies and turbulence in vegetation canopies: the mixing-layer analogy. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 78, 351–382.
  • Rea, A., Lindberg, S. and Keeler, G. 2001. Dry deposition and foliar leaching of mercury and selected trace elements in deciduous forest throughfall. Atmos. Environ. 35, 3453–3462.
  • Reithmaier, L.M., Gockede, M., Marklcanen, T., Knohl, A., Churkina, G. and co-authors. 2006. Use of remotely sensed land use classification for a better evaluation of micrometeorological flux measurement sites. TheoreL Appl. ClimatoL 84, 219–233.
  • Rinne, H., Delany, A., Greenberg, J. and Guenther, A. 2000. A true eddy accumulation system for trace gas fluxes using disjunct eddy sampling method. J. Geophys. Res. 105(D20), 24791-24 798.
  • Rinne, H.J.I., Guenther, A.B., Warneke, C., de Gouw, J.A. and Luxembourg, S.L. 2001. Disjunct eddy covariance technique for trace gas flux measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28, 3139–3142.
  • Ruck, B. and Adams, E. 1991. Fluid mechanical aspects of the pollutant transport to coniferous trees. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 56, 163–195.
  • Ruijgrok, W., Tieben, H. and Eisinga, P. 1997. The dry deposition of particles to a forest canopy: a comparison of model and experimental results. Atmos. Environ. 31, 399–415.
  • Ruppert, J., Thomas, C. and Foken, T. 2006. Scalar similarity for relaxed eddy accumulation methods. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 120, 39–63.
  • Sabin, L.D., Lim, J.H., Venezia, M.T., Winer, A.M., Schiff, K.C. and co-authors. 2006. Dry deposition and resuspension of particle-associated metals near a freeway in Los Angeles. Atmos. Environ. 40, 7528-7538.
  • Schery, S., Wasiolek, P., Nemetz, B., Yarger, F. and Whittlestone, S. 1998. Relaxed eddy accumulator for flux measurement of nanometer-size particles. Aerosol. Sci. TechnoL 28, 159–172.
  • Schmid, H.P. 1994. Source areas for scalars and scalar fluxes. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 67, 293–318.
  • Sehmel, G.A. 1973. Particle eddy diffusivities and deposition velocities for isothermal flow and smooth surfaces. J. Aerosol. Sci. 4, 125–138.
  • Sehmel, G.A. 1979. Model predictions and a summary of dry deposition velocity data. In: Second Life Sciences Symposium: Potential Environmental and Health Consequences of Atmospheric Sulfur Deposition (eds D.S. Shriner, C.R. Richmond and S.E. Lindberg). Ann Arbor Science, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 223–235.
  • Sehmel, G.A. 1980. Particle and gas dry deposition: a review. Atmos. Environ. 14, 983–1011.
  • Seinfeld, J. and Pandis, S. 1998. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change. Wiley-Interscience, New York, USA.
  • Sicklesll, J.E. and Shadwick, D.S. 2002. Precision of atmospheric dry deposition data from the Clean Air Status and Trends Network. Atmos. Environ. 36, 5671–5686.
  • Sievering, H. 1981. Profile measurements of particle mass transfer at the air-water interface. Atmos. Environ. 15, 123–129.
  • Sievering, H. 1982. Profile measurements of particle dry deposition velocity at an air-land interface. Atmos. Environ. 16, 301–306.
  • Sievering, H. 1983. Eddy flux and profile measurements of small-particle dry-deposition velocity at the Boulder atmospheric observatory (BAO). In: Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension (ed H.R. Pruppacher). Elsevier Science Publishing Company, New York, Sanata Monica, California, 963–977.
  • Sievering, H. 1986. Gradient measurements of sulfur and soil mass dry deposition rates under clean air and high wind speed conditions. Atmos. Environ. 20, 341–345.
  • Sievering, H. 1987. Small-particle dry deposition under high wind speed conditions: Eddy flux measurements at the Boulder atmospheric observatory. Atmos. Environ. 21, 2179–2185.
  • Sievering, H. 1989. Discussion: the dry deposition of small particles: a review of experimental measurement. Atmos. Environ. 23, 2863–2864.
  • Sievering, H., Eastman, J. and Schmidt, J. 1982. Air-sea particle ex-change at a nearshore oceanic site. J. Geophys. Res. 87, 11,027–11,037.
  • Slinn, W. 1982. Predictions for particle deposition to vegetative canopies. Atmos. Environ. 16, 1785–1794.
  • Speer, R., Peterson, K., Ellestad, T. and Durham, J. 1985. Test of a prototype eddy accumulator for measuring atmospheric vertical fluxes of water vapor and particulate sulfate. J. Geophys. Res. 90,2119–2122.
  • Stier, R, Feichter, J., Kinne, S., Kloster, S., Vignati, E. and co-authors. 2005. The aerosol-climate model ECHAM5-HAM. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5, 1125–1156.
  • Takemura, T., Nakajima, T., Higurashi, A., Ohta, S. and Sugimoto, N. 2003. Aerosol distributions and radiative forcing over the Asian Pacific region simulated by Spectral Radiation-Transport Model for Aerosol Species (SPRINTARS). J. Geophys. Res. 108, 10.1029/2002JDO03210.
  • Takemura, T., Okamoto, H., Maruyama, Y., Numaguti, A., Higurashi, A. and co-authors. 2000. Global three-dimensional simulation of aerosol optical thickness distribution of various origins. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 17 853-17 874.
  • Tammet, H., Kimmel, V. and Israelsson, S. 2001. Effect of atmospheric electricity on dry deposition of airborne particles from atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 35, 3413–3419.
  • Tasdemir, Y. and Kural, C. 2005. Atmospheric dry deposition fluxes of trace elements measured in Bursa, Turkey. Environ. Poll. 138, 462–472.
  • Tillman, J.E. 1972. The indirect determination of stability, heat and momentum fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer from simple scalar variables during dry unstable conditions. J. AppL MeteoroL 11, 783–792.
  • Venkatram, A. and Pleim, J. 1999. The electrical analogy does not apply to modeling dry deposition of particles. Atmos. Environ. 33, 3075–3076.
  • Vermeulen, A., Wyers, G., Romer, F., van Leeuwen, N., Draaijers, G. and co-authors. 1997. Fog deposition on a coniferous forest in the Netherlands. Atmos. Environ. 31, 375–386.
  • Vesala, T., Suni, T., Rannilc, U., Keronen, P., Marklcanen, T. and co-authors. 2005. Effect of thinning on surface fluxes in a boreal forest. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 19, 10.1029/2004GB002316.
  • Vong, R.J. and Kowalski, A. 1995. Eddy correlation measurements of size-dependent cloud droplet turbulent fluxes to complex terrain. Tellus 47B, 331–352.
  • Vong, R.J., Vickers, D. and Covert, D.S. 2004. Eddy correlation measurements of aerosol deposition to grass. Tellus 56B, 105–117.
  • Walcek, C.J., Brost, R.A., Chang, J.S. and Wesley, M.L. 1986. SO2, sulfate and HNO3 deposition velocities computed using regional landuse and meteorological data. Atmos. Environ. 20, 949–965.
  • Walcek, C.J. and Taylor, G.R. 1986. A theoretical method for computing vertical distributions of acidity and sulfate production within cumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 339–355.
  • Webb, E., Pearman, G. and Leuning, R. 1980. Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer. Quarter. J. Roy. MeteoroL Soc. 106, 85–100.
  • Weber, R.J., Orsini, D., Duan, Y., Baumann, K., Kiang, C.S. and co-authors. 2003. Intercomparison of near real time monitors of PM2.5 nitrate and sulfate at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Atlanta Supersite. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 10.1029/2001JD001220. Wesely, M.L. 1998. Use of variance technqiues to measure dry air-surface exchange rates. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL. 44, 13–31.
  • Wesely, ML., Cook, DR., Hart, R.L. and Williams, R.M. 1982. Air-sea exchange of CO2 and evidence for enhanced upward fluxes. J. Geophys. Res. 87, 8827–8832.
  • Wesely, ML., Cook, DR., Hart, R.L., Hicks, B.B., Durham, J.L. and co-authors. 1983a. Eddy-correlation measurements of the dry deposition of particulate sulfur and submicron particles. In: Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and Resuspension (eds RR. Pruppacher, R.G. Semonin and W.G.N. Slinn). Elsevier Science Publishing Company, New York, Santa Monica, California, 943–952.
  • Wesely, ML., Cook, R. and Hart, R.L. 1983b. Fluxes of gases and particles above a deciduous forest in wintertime. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 27, 237–255.
  • Wesely, ML., Cook, R., Hart, R.L. and Speer, R. 1985. Measurements and parameterizations of particulate sulfur dry deposition over grass. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 2131–2143.
  • Wesely, M.L. and Hicks, B.B. 1979. Dry Deposition and Emission of Small Particles at the Surface of the Earth 4th Symposium on Turbulence, Diffusion and Air Pollution. American Meteorological Society, Reno, Nevada, 510–513.
  • Wesley, M.L. and Hicks, B. 2000. A review of the current status of knowledge on dry deposition. Atmos. Environ. 34, 2261–2282.
  • Wesely, M., Hicks, B., Dannevilc, W., Frisella, S. and Husar, R. 1977. An eddy-correlation measurement of particulate deposition from the atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 11, 561–563.
  • Wesely, M.L. and Williams, R.M. 1980. Eddy-correlation measurements of particle fluxes over Lake Michigan. In: Argonne National Laboratory, Radiological and Environmental Research Division Annual Report, Atmospheric Physics, January-December 1980. Department of Energy, 36–38.
  • Wilson, J., Flesch, T.K. and Harper, L. 2001. Micro-meteorological methods for estimating surface exchange with a disturbed windflow. Agric. Forest MeteoroL 107, 207–225.
  • Wilson, J.D. and Sawford, B.L. 1996. Review of Lagrangian stochastic models for trajectories in the turbulent atmosphere. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 78, 191–210.
  • Wiman, B. and Agren, G. 1985. Aerosol depletion and deposition in forests - a model analysis. Atmos. Environ. 19, 335–347.
  • Wiman, B., Agren, G. and Lannefors, H. 1985. Aerosol concentration profiles within a mature coniferous forest - Model versus field results. Atmos. Environ. 19, 363–367.
  • Wyers, G. and Duyzer, J. 1997. Micrometeorological measurement of the dry deposition flux of sulphate and nitrate aerosols to coniferous forest. Atmos. Environ. 31, 333–343.
  • Wyngaard, J.C. 1973. On surface-layer turbulence. In: Workshop on Micrometeorology (ed D.A. Haugen). American Meteorological Society, Boston, Mass, 101–149.
  • Zhang, L. and Brook, J. 2001. The effect of subgrid velocity scale on site-specific/subgrid area and grid-averaged dry deposition velocities. Atmos. Environ. 35, 3841–3850.
  • Zhang, L., Gong, S., Padro, J. and Barrie, L. 2001. A size-segregated particle dry deposition scheme for an atmospheric aerosol model. Atmos. Environ. 35, 549–560.
  • Zufall, M.J. and Davidson, C.I. 1998. Dry deposition of particles. In: Atmospheric Particles, Volume 5 (eds R.M. Harrison and RE. vanGrieken). John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 425–473.
  • Zufall, M.J., Davidson, CJ., Caffrey, P.F. and Ondov, J.M. 1998. Air-borne concentrations and dry deposition fluxes of particulate species to surrogate surfaces deployed in southern Lake Michigan. Environ. Sci. TechnoL 32, 1623–1628.