Sex-lethal Autoregulation Requires Multiple cis-Acting Elements Upstream and Downstream of the Male Exon and Appears to Depend Largely on Controlling the Use of the Male Exon 5′ Splice Site

References

• Albrecht, E. B., and H. K. Salz. 1993. The Drosophila sex determination gene snf is utilized for the establishment of the female-specific splicing of Sex-lethal. Genetics 134:801–807.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baker, B. S.%% 1989. Sex in flies: the splice of life. Nature (London) 340:521–524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, L. R., J. I. Horabin, P. Schedl, and T. W. Cline. 1991. Positive autoregulation of Sex-lethal by alternative splicing maintains the female determined state in Drosophila. Cell 65: 229–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, L. R., E. M. Maine, P. Schedl, and T. W. Cline. 1988. Sex-lethal, a Drosophila sex determination switch gene, exhibits sex-specific RNA splicing and sequence similarity to RNA binding proteins. Cell 55:1037–1046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boggs, R. T., P. Gregor, S. Idriss, J. M. Belote, and M. McKeown. 1987. Regulation of sexual differentiation in D. melanogaster via alternative splicing of RNA from the transformer gene. Cell 50:739–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bopp, D., L. R. Bell, T. W. Cline, and P. Schedl. 1991. Developmental distribution of female-specific Sex-lethal proteins in D. melanogaster. Genes Dev. 5:403–415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burtis, K. C., and B. S. Baker. 1989. Drosophila doublese-x gene controls somatic sexual differentiation by producing alternatively spliced mRNAs encoding related sex-specific polypeptides. Cell 56:997–1010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoun, G. Personal communication.
   Google Scholar
• Cline, T. W.%% 1984. Autoregulatory functioning of a Drosophila gene product that establishes and maintains the sexually determined state. Genetics 107:231–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobkin, C., and A. Bank. 1985. Reversibility of IVS2 missplicing in mutant human beta-globin gene. J. Biol. Chem. 260: 16322–16337.
   Google Scholar
• Dominski, Z., and R. Kole. 1992. Cooperation of pre-mRNA sequence elements in splice site selection. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:2108–2114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estes, P. A., N. E. Cooke, and S. A. Liebhaber. 1990. A difference in the splicing patterns of the closely related normal and variant human growth hormone gene transcripts is determined by a minimal sequence divergence between two potential splice-acceptor sites. J. Biol. Chem. 265:19863–19870.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frohman, M. A., M. K. Dush, and G. R. Martin. 1988. Rapid production of full-length cDNAs from rare transcripts: amplification using a single gene-specific oligonucleotide primer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:8998–9002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gergen, J. P.%% 1987. Dosage compensation in Drosophila: evidence that daughterless and Se-x-lethal control X chromosome activity at the blastoderm stage of embryogenesis. Genetics 117:477–485.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goguel, V., X. Liao, B. C. Raymond, and M. Rosbash. 1991. U1 snRNP can influence 3′-splice site selection as well as 5′-splice site selection. Genes Dev. 5:1430–1438.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grabowski, P. J., F.-U. H. Nasim, H.-C. Kuo, and R. Burch. 1991. Combinatorial splicing of exon pairs by two-site binding of U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:5919–5928.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Granadino, B., S. Campuzano, and L. Sanchez. 1990. The Drosophila melanogaster fl(2)d gene is needed for the female-specific splicing of Sex-lethal RNA. EMBO J. 9:2597–2602.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hedley, M. L., and T. Maniatis. 1991. Sex-specific splicing and polyadenylation of dsx pre-mRNA requires a sequence that binds specifically to tra-2 protein in vitro. Cell 65:579–586.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hilfiker, A., and R. Nöthiger. 1991. The temperature-sensitive mutation virts (virilizer) identifies a new gene involved in sex determination of Drosophila. Roux’s Arch. Dev. Biol. 200:240–248.
   Google Scholar
• Hodges, D., and S. I. Bernstein. 1992. Suboptimal 5′ and 3′ splice sites regulate alternative splicing of Drosophila melanogaster myosin heavy chain transcripts in vitro. Mech. Dev. 37:127–140.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hodgkin, J.%% 1989. Drosophila sex determination: a cascade of regulated splicing. Cell 56:905–906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman, B. E., and P. J. Grabowski. 1992. U1 snRNP targets an essential splicing factor, U2AF65, to the 3′ splice site by a network of interactions spanning the exon. Genes Dev. 6:2554–2568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horabin, J. I., and P. Schedl. 1993. Regulated splicing of the Drosophila Sex-lethal male exon involves a blockage mechanism. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13:1408–1414.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoshijima, K., K. Inoue, I. Higuchi, H. Sakamoto, and Y. Shimura. 1991. Control of doublesex alternative splicing by transformer and transformer-2 in Drosophila. Science 252:833–836.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Inoue, K., K. Hoshyima, H. Sakamoto, and Y. Shimura. 1990. Binding of the Drosophila ex-lethal gene product to the alternative splice site of transformer primary transcript. Nature (London) 344:461–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamison, S. F., A. Crow, and M. A. Garcia-Bianco. 1992. The spliceosome assembly pathway in mammalian extracts. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:4279–4287.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keyes, L. N., T. W. Cline, and P. Schedl. 1992. The primary sex determination signal of Drosophila acts at the level of transcription. Cell 68:933–943.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kreivi, J.-P., K. Zerivitz, and G. Akusjarvi. 1991. Sequences involved in the control of adenovirus LI alternative RNA splicing. Nucleic Acids Res. 19:2379–2386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunkel, T. A.%% 1987. Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis without phenotypic selection, p. 8.0.1-8.1.6. In F. M. Ausubel, R. Brent, R. E. Kingston, D. D. Moore, J. G. Seidman, J. A. Smith, and K. Struhl (ed.), Current protocols in molecular biology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Kuo, H., F. H. Nasim, and P. J. Grabowski. 1991. Control of alternative splicing by the differential binding of U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle. Science 251:1045–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsley, D. L., and G. G. Zimm. 1992. The genome of Drosophila melanogaster. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.
   Google Scholar
• Mardon, H. J., G. Sebastio, and F. E. Baralle. 1987. A role for exon sequences in alternative splicing of the human fibronectin gene. Nucleic Acids Res. 15:7725–7733.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moore, M. J., C. C. Query, and P. A. Sharp. 1992. Splicing of precursors to messenger RNAs by the spliceosome, p. 1–30. In R. Gesteland and J. Atkins (ed.), The RNA world. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Mount, S. Personal communication.
   Google Scholar
• Mullen, M. P., C. W. J. Smith, J. G. Patton, and B. Nadal-Ginard. 1991. a-Tropomyosin mutually exclusive exon selection: competition between branchpoint/polypyrimidine tracts determines default exon choice. Genes Dev. 5:642–655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nasim, F. H., P. A. Spears, H. M. Hoffman, H. Kuo, and P. J. Grabowski. 1990. A sequential splicing mechanism promotes selection of an optional exon by repositioning a downstream 5′ splice site in preprotachykinin pre-mRNA. Genes Dev. 4:1172–1184.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oliver, B., N. Perrimon, and A. P. Mahowald. 1988. Genetic evidence that the sans fille locus is involved in Drosophila sex determination. Genetics 120:159–171.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peterson, M. L., and R. P. Perry. 1989. The regulated production of μm and μs mRNA is dependent on the relative efficiencies of μs poly(A) site usage and the Cμ4-to-Ml splice. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:726–738.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pirrotta, V.%% 1988. Vectors for P-mediated transformation in Drosophila, p. 437–456. In R. L. Rodriguez and D. T. Denhardt (ed.), Vectors, a survey of molecular cloning vectors and their uses. Butterworths, Boston.
   Google Scholar
• Reed, R., and T. Maniatis. 1986. A role for exon sequences and splice-site proximity in splice-site selection. Cell 46:681–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robberson, B. L., G. J. Cote, and S. M. Berget. 1990. Exon definition may facilitate splice site selection in RNAs with multiple exons. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10:84–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, H. M., C. R. Preston, R. W. Phillis, D. M. Johnson-Schlitz, W. K. Benz, and R. W. Engels. 1988. A stable genomic source of P element transposase in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 118:461–470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryner, L. C., and B. S. Baker. 1991. Regulation of doublesex pre-mRNA processing occurs by 3′-splice site activation. Genes Dev. 5:2071–2085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakamoto, H., K. Inoue, I. Higuchi, Y. Ono, and Y. Shimura. 1992. Control of Drosophila Sex-lethal pre-mRNA splicing by its own female-specific product. Nucleic Acids Res. 20:5533–5540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuels, M. E. Personal communication.
   Google Scholar
• Samuels, M. E., P. Schedl, and T. W. Cline. 1991. The complete set of transcripts from the Drosophila sex-determination gene Sex-lethal encodes multiple related polypeptides. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:3584–3602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, L., and R. Nothiger. 1983. Sex determination and dosage compensation in Drosophila melanogaster: production of male clones in XX females. EMBO J. 2:211–214.
   Google Scholar
• Seraphin, B., and M. Rosbash. 1989. Identification of functional U1 snRNP-premRNA complexes committed to spliceosome assembly and splicing. Cell 59:349–358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sosnowski, B. A., J. M. Belote, and M. McKeown. 1989. Sex-specific alternative splicing of RNA from the transformer gene results from sequence-dependent splice site blockage. Cell 58:449–459.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spradling, A. C., and G. M. Rubin. 1982. Transposition of cloned P elements into Drosophila germ line chromosomes. Science 218:341–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinmann-Zwicky, M. 1988. Sex determination in Drosophila: the X chromosomal gene liz is required for Sxl activity. EMBO J. 7:3889–3898.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tomlinson, A., B. E. Kimmel, and G. M. Rubin. 1988. rough, a Drosophila homeobox gene required in photoreceptors R2 and R5 for inductive interactions in the developing eye. Cell 55:771–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treisman, R., S. Orkin, and T. Maniatis. 1983. Specific transcription and RNA splicing defects in B-thalassemia genes. Nature (London) 302:591–596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valcarcel, J., R. Singh, P. D. Zamore, and M. R. Green. 1993. The protein Sex-lethal antagonizes the splicing factor U2AF to regulate alternative splicing of transformer pre-mRNA. Nature (London) 362:171–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watakabe, A., K. Tanaka, and Y. Shimura. 1993. The role of exon sequences in splice site selection. Genes Dev. 7:407–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, J. L., W. Petri, and M. Meselson. 1983. Accumulation of a specific subset of D. melanogaster heat shock mRNAs in normal development without heat shock. Cell 32: 1161–1170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar