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Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites Volume 7, 2005 - Issue 1
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Conservation of a ‘living heritage site’ A contradiction in terms? A case study of Angkor World Heritage Site

Keiko Miura
Pages 3-18 | Published online: 18 Jul 2013

  • See http://www.unesco.org/culture/japan-fit/html_engiangkorshtml for general information about Angkor. Statistics for the total population of the site were not available during my fieldwork from August 1999 to August 2001. This approximate figure is based on the map of the Authorité pour la Protection du Site et l'Amenagement de la Region d'Angkor (APSikRA) produced in 1994, for village populations in Zones 1 and 2, and population statistics dated 2000 from the provincial authority. I then made a table of village names and their population in the respective zones and requested APSARA to verify it.
  • See http://www/Merriam.com/cgi-bin/dictionary
  • UNESCO. Conventions Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris (1985) 13–56.
  • Jokhilehto, J. The context of the Venice Charter (1964). Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 2 (1998) 229–233.
  • UNESCO (1985) [31 81.
  • Bianchi, R. V., Trujillo, J. I., de la Posa, B. M. and Talavera, A. S. The political and socio-cultural relations of world heritage in Garajonay National Park, La Gomera. In: Robinson, M., Evans, N., Long, P., Sharpley, R. and Swarbrooke, J. (eds) Tourism and Heritage Relationships: Global, National and Local Perspectives. Centre for Travel and Toursim and Business Education Publishers, Sunderland (2000) 47–62.
  • Bianchi, R. The contested landscapes of worldheritage on a tourist island: the case of Garajonay National Park, La Gorriera. International Journal of Heritage Studies 8 (2) (2002) 79–80.
  • Moffatt, I. Kakadu: managing sustainable tourism in a world heritage site. In: Robinson, M., Evans, N., Long, P., Sharpley, R. and Swarbrooke, J. (eds) Tourism and Heritage Relationships: Global, National and Local Perspectives. Centre for Travel and Tourism and Business Education Publishers, Sunderland (2000). 301–313.
  • Du Cros, H. and McKercher, B. World Heritagelisting and ‘best intentions’: a case study from Australia. In: Robinson, M., Evans, N., Long, P., Sharpley, R. and Swarbrooke, J. (eds) Tourism and Heritage Relationships: Global, National and Local Perspectives. Centre for Travel and Tourism and Business Education Publishers, Sunderland (2000). 147–157.
  • Chakravarty, I. World Heritage Sites and tourism: a case study of the Elephanta Island, Mumbai, India. In: Robinson, M., Evans, N., Long, P., Sharpley, R. and Swarbrooke, J. (eds) Tourism and Heritage Relationships: Global, National and Local Perspectives. Centre for Travel and Tourism and Business Education Publishers, Sunderland (2000) 77–92.
  • Walter, G. Elephanta Island and natural heritage conservation: is there a proxy effect due to its World Heritage Site (cultural) status? The Politics of World Heritage Conference, 2–4 September 2002. University of North London, London (2002).
  • Adams, K.M. The politics of becoming a World Heritage village: trajectories of globalization in Tana Toraja, Indonesia. The Politics of World Heritage Conference, 2-4 September 2002. University of North London, London (2002).
  • Adams, K.M. The politics of heritage in Tana Toraja, Indonesia: interplaying the local and the global. Indonesia and the Malay World 31 (89) (2003) 91–107.
  • Evans, G. Living in a World Heritage city: stakeholders in the dialectic of the universal and particular. International Journal of Heritage Studies 8 (2) (2002) 17–35.
  • Hitchcock, M. Zanzibar stone town joins the imagined community of World Heritage Sites. International Journal of Heritage Studies 8 (2) (2002) 153–166.
  • Bender, B. Stonehenge: Making Space. Berg, Oxford and New York (1999) 26.
  • The Dutch National Commission for UNESCO. Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage. Presented at a specialist conference in Amsterdam, 21-24 May 2003 (http://www.unesco.nl/imagesconcept_paper_24.2.pdf).
  • The Dutch National Commission for UNESCO. Conclusions and Recommendations of the Conference Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage, Amsterdam, 22-24 May 2003 (http://www.unesco.ril/images/final_conclusions_and_recommendations_amsterdam_2003_.pdf).
  • Takaki, A. and Shimotsuma, K. What is 'Living Heritage Site'? ICCROM's Living Heritage Sites Programme First Strategy Meeting, Bangkok, 17-19 September 2003. ICCROM, Rome (2003) 4–5.
  • Royal Decree establishing Protected Cultural Zones in the Siem Reap/Angkor Region and Guidelines for their Management was promulgated by Royal Decree 001/NS on 19 February 1995. See APSARA. Angkor: Manual for the Past, Present and Future (2nd edition). APSARA, Phnom Penh (1998) 212–223.
  • Some refer to it as Lokesvara. See Warrack, S. Conserving living heritage - a case study. The statue of Ta Reach at Angkor Wat. ICCROM's Living Heritage Sites Programme First Strategy Meeting, Bangkok, 17-19 September, 2003. ICCROM, Rome (2003) 3.
  • Irn, S. Angkor: A Living Heritage Site. ICCROM's Living Heritage Sites Programme First Strategy Meeting, Bangkok, 17-19 September 2003. ICCROM, Rome (2003) 4.
  • Pyramid-shaped temples have a neak ta in the top central shrine, whereas widely spread temples tend to have neak ta at their gates.
  • Chandler, D. P. A History of Cambodia. Westview Press, Boulder CO, San Francisco, Oxford; Allen & Unwin, Sydney (1992) 20.
  • Mus, P. India Seen from the Past: Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa. Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, Victoria, Australia (1975).
  • Mohanikay is the most popular sect in Cambodia. Thommayut sect, a reformist movement introduced from Siam during the late nineteenth century, has a limited number of followers, including the royal families and the aristocrats. See Yang, S. Buddhism in Cambodia, 1795-1954. M.A. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca NY (1990).
  • Dipterocarpus alatus. It is also known as Chheu Teal and produces resin. Wood is highly valued in construction and in cabinetwork. See Dy Phon, P. Dictionary of Plants Used in Cambodia. Imperimerie Olympic, Phnom Penh (2000) 243.
  • APSARA, originally comprised a Central Management Bureau (including the Office for Land Transactions, the Urban Affairs Office and the Accounting and Finance Office) and two operational agencies, the Urban Development Agency and the Tourism Development Agency (APSARA Angkor: Manual for the Past, Present and Future (2nd edition). APSARA, Phnom Penh (1998) 171-175). ‘Three agencies, the Institute of Khmer Culture, the Angkor Conservation Office and the Cultural Heritage Police, all working directly in the cultural heritage domain, are placed under the jurisdiction of APSARA and/or the concerned Ministry from the initial stage’ (ibid.: 175). The organization was restructured several times. The new management structure was introduced in June 2001 and included five technical departments: the City Urban Planning and Angkor Tourist City Department; the Monument Conservation Department; the Angkor Tourism Development Department; the Economic Development Department; and the Khmer Culture Department. See APSARA. APSARA Authority Activity Report; January to June 2001. Working Document for the International Co-ordinating Committee for Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC) 8th Plenary Session, 2001. APSARA, Phnom Penh (2001) 1. All cultural aspects, other than the conservation and maintenance of monuments, but including the local population, are handled by the Khmer Culture Department.
  • The heritage police force was created by sub-decree No. 60, dated 8 October 1997, which answers directly to the National Directorate, Ministry of Interior and whose members were trained by the French. See ICC Annual Report of Activities, 1998. ICC, Phnom Penh (1998) 30.
  • According to the discussion paper prepared by the Provincial Forestry and Wild Life Department, Siem Reap, for the ICC 5th Plenary Session, 1998. ICC, Phnom Penh (1998), in 1900 200 families were moved by the government from Angkor Wat to resettle outside the moat.
  • In Cambodia, the term phum (village) is used even though there may be only small hamlets. Phum as the lowest unit of the administration was introduced by the French.
  • Angkor was returned to Cambodia that year, together with all the provinces annexed by Thailand more than a century earlier. See Dagens, B. Angkor: Heart of an Asian Empire. Thames and Hudson, London (1989) 83.
  • Commaille, J. Rapport de la Conservation d'Arigkor (computer version). Ecole Française d'Extreme - Orient Archives, Paris (1912).
  • Marchal, H. Rapport de la Conservation d'Angkor (computer version). Ecole Francaise d' Extreme - Orient Archives, Paris (1926).
  • See Dagens (1989) [32] 126.
  • See Tashiro, A. Heritage conservation and local inhabitants - a case study of the Angkor Heritage Site. Renaissance Culturelle du Cambodge 18 (2001) 238 (in Japanese).
  • Cambodge Soir. Ordre de demolition des pagocles du site d'Angkon Cambodge Soir. Phnom Penh 1471 (14 March 2002) 1, 7.
  • ABC Radio Australia News. Monks ordered to leave Angkor Wat (14 June 2002). Available at: http://abc.net.au/ra/default.htm
  • The International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC) was established at the Tokyo Conference of October 1993. It is co-chaired by Japan and France, with UNESCO acting as the Standing Secretariat.
  • APSARA. APSARA Authority Activity Report for the Period June-December, 2000. ICC, Phnom Penh (2000) 2–3.
  • Fairhead, J. and Leach, M. Reframing Deforestation: Global Analysis and Local Realities: Studies in West Africa. Routledge, London and New York (1998) 192.
  • Khouri-Dagher, N. World Heritage: living places managed by local people. UNESCO Sources, Special Issue: UNESCO 2000-2001 115 (1999) 10–11.
  • Thomas, F. and Miskell, B. Angkor Forest Rehabilitation and Landscape Enhancement Project. Fraser Thomas and Boffa Miskell Asia Development Assistance Facility Programme, Auckland and Wellington, New Zealand (1998).
  • International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM). Background Paper Prepared for the First Strategy Meeting of ICCROM's Living Heritage Sites Programme, Bangkok, 9-11 April, 2003. ICCROM, Rome (2003) 1.
  • Throsby, D. Seven questions in the economics of cultural heritage. In: Hutter, M. and Rizzo, I. (eds) Economic Perspectives on Cultural Heritage, Macmillan, London (1997).

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