Oedema in kwashiorkor is caused by hypoalbuminaemia

References

• Schofield C, Ashworth A. Why have mortality rates for severe malnutrition remained so high? Bull WHO. 1996;74:223–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams CD. A nutritional disease of childhood associated with a maize diet. Arch Dis Child. 1933;8:423–33.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Acute severe malnutrition. In: Pocket Book of Hospital Care for Children: Guidelines for the Management of Common Childhood Illnesses. Geneva: WHO, 2013; 197–222.
   Google Scholar
• Gitlin D, Cravioto J, Frenk S, Montano EL, Galvan RR, Gomez F, et al. Albumin metabolism in children with protein malnutrition. J Clin Invest. 1958;37:682–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehead RG, Frood JDL, Poskitt EME. Value of serum-albumin measurements in nutritional surveys: a reappraisal. Lancet. 1971;298:287–9.
   Google Scholar
• Whitehead RG, Coward WA, Lunn PG. Serum-albumin concentration and the onset of kwashorkor. Lancet. 1973;301:63–6.
   Google Scholar
• Hay RW, Whitehead RG, Spicer CC. Serum-albumin as a prognostic indicator in oedematous malnutrition. Lancet. 1975;306:427–9.
   Google Scholar
• Brasseuer D, Hennart P, Dramaix M, Bahwere P, Donnen P, Tonglet R, et al. Biological risk factors for fatal protein energy malnutrition in hospitalised children in Zaire. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1994;18:220–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden MHN, Golden BE, Jackson AA. Albumin and nutritional oedema. Lancet. 1980;315:114–16.
   Google Scholar
• Sauerwein RW, Mulder JA, Mulder L, Lowe B, Peshu N, Demacker PNM, et al. Inflammatory markers in children with protein-energy malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65:1534–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden MJN, Ramdath D. Free radicals in the pathogenesis of kwashiorkor. Proc Nutr Soc. 1987;46:53–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden MHN. Oedematous malnutrition. Brit Med Bull. 1998;54:433–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden MHN. The development of concepts of malnutrition. J Nutr. 2002;132:2117–22S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starling EH. On the absorption of fluid from the connective tissue spaces. J Physiol. 1896;19:312–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carfray A, Patel K, Wihitaker P, Garrick P, Griffiths GJ, Warwick GL. Albumin as an outcome measure in haemodialysis in patients: the effect of variation in assay method. Nephrol Dial Transpl. 2000;15:1819–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster D, Bignell AHC, Attwood EC. An assessment of the suitability of bromcresol green for the determination of serum albumin. Clin Chim Acta. 1974;53:101–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingwersen S, Raabo E. Improved and more specific bromocresol green methods for the manual and automatic determination of serum albumin. Clin Chim Acta. 1978;88:545–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaklama MS, Gabr MK, El Maraghy S, Patwardhan VN. Liver vitamin A in protein-calorie malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1972;25:412–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaklama MS, Gabr MK, El Maraghy S, Patwardhan VN. Serum vitamin A in protein-calorie malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1973;26:1202–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baertl JM, Placko RP, Graham GG. Serum proteins and plasma free amino acids in severe malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1974;27:733–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raghuramulu N, Jaya Rao KS. Growth hormone secretion in protein calorie malnutrition. J Clin Endocr Metab. 1974;38:176–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz FCM, Lunat M, Wolfsdorf J. Blood xylose concentrations in protein energy malnutrition. S Afr Med J. 1974;48:2387–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith FR, Suskind R, Thanangkul O, Leitzmann C, Goodman DS, Olson RE. Plasma vitamin A, retinol-binding protein and prealbumin concentrations in protein-calorie malnutrition. Ill. Response to varying dietary treatments. Am J Clin Nutr. 1975;28:732–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Westhuysen JM, Kanengoni E, Jones JJ, van Niekerk CH. Plasma renin activity in oedematous and marasmic children with protein energy malnutrition. S Afr Med J. 1975;49:1729–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan L, Bamji MS. Plasma carnitine levels in children with protein-calorie malnutrition before and after rehabilitation. Clin Chim Acta. 1977;75:163–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oladunni Taylor G, Agbedana EO, Johnson AOK. High-density-lipoprotein-cholesterol in protein-energy malnutrition. Brit J Nutr. 1982;47:489–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soliman AT, Hassan AEHI, Aref MK, Hintz RL, Rosenfeld RG, Rogol AD. Serum insulin-like growth factors I and II concentrations and growth hormone and insulin responses to arginine infusion in children with protein-energy malnutrition before and after nutritional rehabilitation. Pediatr Res. 1986;20:1122–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akenami FOT, Marjaleena K, Siimes MA, Ekanem EE, Bolarin DM, Vaheri A. Assessment of plasma fibronectin in malnourished Nigerian children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1997;24:183–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spoelstra MN, Mari A, Mendel M, Senga E, van Rjeenen P, van Dijk TH, et al. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are both associated with impaired glucose clearance related to pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. Metabolism. 2012;61:1224–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srikantia SG, Sahgal S. Use of cottonseed protein in protein-calorie malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1968;21:212–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson CE, Freesemann C. Immunoglobulins in protein-calorie malnutrition. Arch Dis Child. 1970;45:282–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coward WA, Whitehead RG. Changes in serum β-lipoprotein concentration during the development of kwashiorkor and in recovery. Brit J Nutr. 1972;27:383–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roode H, Prinslol JG, Kruger H, Freier E. Effects of an acidified and a non-acidified milk formula on diarrhoea, body mass and serum albumin levels of kwashiorkor patients. S Afr Med J. 1972;46:1134–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waslien CI, Kamel K, El-Ramly Z, Carter JP, Mourad KA, Khattab A-K, et al. Folate requirements of children. 1. A formula diet low in folic acid for study of folate deficiency in protein-calorie malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1972;25:147–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy V, Gupta CP. Treatment of kwashiorkor with opaque-2 maize. Am J Clin Nutr. 1974;27:122–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker RD, Baker SS, Margo GM, Reuter HH. Successful use of a soya-maize mixture in the treatment of kwashiorkor. S Afr Med J. 1978;53:674–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coulthard MG. Management of Finnish congenital nephrotic syndrome by unilateral nephrectomy. Pediatr Nephrol. 1989;3:451–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmberg C, Antikainen M, Ronnholm K, Ala-Houhala M, Jalanko H. Management of congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type. Pediatr Nephrol. 1995;9:87–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huttunen N-P. Congenital nephrotic syndrome of Finnish type: study of 75 patients. Arch Dis Child. 1976;51:344–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalil M, Aref MK, Mahmoud S, Abdel-Malek AT, Guirgis FK, Moghazy M, et al. Platelet adhesiveness, plasma free fatty acids, and serum triglycerides in kwashiorkor. Arch Dis Child. 1974;49:568–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginevri F, Ghiggeri GM, Candiano G, Oleggini R, Bertelli R, Piccardo MT, et al. Peroxidative damage of the erythrocyte membrane in children with nephrotic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol. 1989;3:25–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granqvist A, Nilsson UA, Ebefors K, Haraldsson B, Nystrom J. Impaired glomerular and tubular antioxidative defense mechanisms in nephrotic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal. 2010;299:F898–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viart P. Blood volume (51Cr) in severe protein-calorie malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1976;29:25–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srikantia SG, Mohanram M. Antidiuretic hormone values in plasma and urine of malnourished children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1970;31:312–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kritzinger EAE, Kanengoni E, Jones JJ. Plasma renin activity in children with protein energy malnutrition (kwashiorkor). S Afr Med J. 1974;48:499–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alleyne GAO. Plasma and blood volumes in severely malnourished Jamaican children. Arch Dis Child. 1966;41:313–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warton CMR, Kanengoni E, Jones JJ. Plasma renin activity in rats fed exclusively on maize (mealie) meal. S Afr Med J. 1973;47:1498–500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Westhuysen JM, Kanengoni E, Mbizvo M, Jones JJ. The effect of protein energy malnutrition on plasma renin and oedema in the pig. S Afr Med J. 1977;51:18–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouby N, Fernandes S. Mild dehydration, vasopressin and the kidney: animal and human studies. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:S39–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raman S, Peters MJ. Fluid management in the critically ill child. Pediatr Nephrol. 2014;29:23–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maitland K. Severe malnutrition: therapeutic challenges and treatment of hypovolaemic shock. Proc Nutr Soc. 2009;68:274–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wharton BA, Howells GR, McCance RA. Cardiac failure in kwashiorkor. Lancet. 1967;290:384–7.
   Google Scholar
• Akech SO, Karisa J, Nakamya P, Boga M, Maitland K. Phase II trial of isotonic fluild resuscitation in Kenyan children with severe malnutrition and hypovolaemia. BMC Pediatr. 2010;10:71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar