Guidelines on Antimicrobial Chemotherapy for Prevention and Treatment of Infections in the Intensive Care Unit

References

• Martone WJ, Jarvis WR, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Haley RW. Incidence and nature of endemic and epidemic nosoco-mial infections, In: Hospital Infections, 4th Ed, Chapter 30, Bennett JV & Brachman PS, editors, Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998: 461-476.
   Google Scholar
• Brachman PS. Epidemiology of nosocomial infections. In: Hospital Infections, 4th Ed, Chapter 1, Bennett JV & Brachman PS, Editors, Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998: 3-22.
   Google Scholar
• Kuehnert MJ, Jarvis WR. Changing epidemiology of nosocomial infections in human immunodeficiency virus-infect-ed patients. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 321–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvis WR, Wartone WJ. Predominant pathogens in hospital infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 29 (Suppl. A): 19-24.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 4th Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections. Atlanta, Georgia, March 5-9, 2000. Infect Contr Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21: 86-174.
   Google Scholar
• Aquino VM, Pappo A, Buchanan GR, et al. The chang-ing epidemiology of bacteremia in neutropenic children with cancer. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995; 14: 140–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff M, Brun-Buisson C, Lode H, et al. The changing epidemiology of severe infections in the ICU. Clin Microbiol Infect 1997; 3 (Suppl.1): S36-S47.
   Google Scholar
• Vincent JL, Bihari DJ, Sutter PM, et al. The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe. JAMA 1995; 274: 639–645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer RC. Predominant pathogens found in the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis1996; 15: 281–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pertowski CA, Baron RC, Lasker B, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of Candida albicans sternal wound infection follow-ing cardiac surgery. J Infect Dis 1995; 172: 817–823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) sys-tem, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Nosocomial Infections (NNIS) report, data summary from October 1986, April 1996. Am J Infect Control 1996; 24: 380–388.
   Google Scholar
• Weinstein RA, Hayden MK. Multiply drug resistant pathogens: epidemiology and control. In: Hospital Infections, JV Bennett & Brachman, editors (4th Edition), Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Chapter 15, 1998: 215-236.
   Google Scholar
• Berger-Bachi B. Resistance not mediated by I3-lacta-mase (methicillin-resistance), In: The Staphylococci in Human Disease, K.B. Crossley & G.L. Archer, (eds), New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1997: 158-174.
   Google Scholar
• Pujol M, Pena C, Pallares R, et al. Nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia among nasal carriers of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible strains J Am Med 1996; 100: 509–516.
   Google Scholar
• Coyle MD, Lipsky BA. Coryneform bacteria in infec-tious diseases: clinical and laboratory aspects. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990; 3: 227–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funke G, Von Graevenitz, A, Clarridge JE et al. Clinical microbiology of coryneform bacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997; 10: 125–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decrê D, Suit A, Pangon B, et al. In vivo susceptibility of Rhodococcus equi to 27 antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28: 311–313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould IM. Risk factors for acquisition of multiply-drug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994; 13 (Suppl.1): 30-38.
   Google Scholar
• Bergogne-Bêrêzin E, Joly-Guillou ML. Hospital infec-tion with Acinetobacter spp.: an increasing problem. J Hosp Infect 1991; 18 (Suppl. A): 250-255.
   Google Scholar
• Penzak SR, Abate BJ. Stenotrophomonas (Xanthomonas) maltophilia: a mutidrug resistant nosocomial pathogen. Pharmacotherapy 1997; 17: 293–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lecso-Bornet M, Bergogne-Bêrêzin E. Susceptibility of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia to three I3-lactams and five 13-lactam-I3-lactamase inhibitor combinations. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 40: 717–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer RC. The emergence of epidemic, multiple-resistant Stenotrophomonas (Xanthomonas) maltophilia and Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia. J Hosp Infect 1995; (Suppl): 453-464.
   Google Scholar
• Emori TG, Gaynes RP. An overview of nosocomial infections including the role of the microbiology laboratory. Clin Microbiol Rev 1993; 6: 428–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centikaya Y, Falk P, Mayhall CG. Vancomycin resis-tant enterococci. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13: 547–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe RA, Brown NM, Spencer RC. The new threats of Gram-positive pathogens: reemergence of things past. J Clin Pathol 1996; 49: 444–449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edmond MB, Ober JF, Dawson JD, et al. Vancomycin resistant enterococcal bacteremia: natural history and attribut-able mortality. Clin Infect Dis1996; 23: 1234–1239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noskin GA, Peterson LR, Warren JR. Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis bacteremia: acquisition and outcome. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 296–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Sohl N. Le point sur la resistance aux antibiotiques des staphylocoques. Antibiotiques 2000; 2 (1): 52–63.
   Google Scholar
• Hiramatsu K. Vancomycin resistance in staphylococci. Drug Resist Updates 1998; 1: 1351–1350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brun-Buisson C, Doyon F, Carlet J and the French Bacteremia Sepsis Study Group. Bacteremia and severe sepsis in adults. A multicenter prospective survey in ICUs and wards of 24 hospitals. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 617–624.
   Google Scholar
• Pittet D. Nosocomial bloodstream infections. In: Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, RP Wenzel, Ed., (3d edition). Baltimore, Maryland: William and Wilkins, Chapt 33, 1997: 711-769.
   Google Scholar
• Kluytmans J. Surgical infections including burns. In: Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, RP Wenzel, Ed., (3d edition). Baltimore, Maryland: William and Wilkins, Chapt 37, 1997: 841-865.
   Google Scholar
• Steele L, Fawal H. 4th Decennial international confer-ence on nosocomial and healthcare-associated infections: a challenge for change. Am J Infect Contr 2000; 28 (3): 207–210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trouillet JL, Chastre J. Pneumopathies nosocomiales: etiologies microbiennes et impact therapeutique. Antibiotiques 2000; 2 (2): 95–100.
   Google Scholar
• Aksamit TR. Pseudomonas pneumonia in the immuno-compromised patient. In: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the opportunist, pathogenesis and disease. Fick RB, ed, Boca-Raton: CRC Press, 1993: 1-5.
   Google Scholar
• Hilf M, Yu VL, Sharp J, et al. Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients. Am J Med 1989; 87: 540–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhame FS. The inanimate environment. In: Hospital Infections, JV Bennett & Brachman (4th Ed.) Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Chapt 20, 1998: 299-324.
   Google Scholar
• Craig WA. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic para-meters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drusano GL, Craig WA. Relevance of pharmacokinet-ics and pharmacodynamics in the selection of antibiotics for respiratory tract infections. J Chemother 1997; 11: 426–439.
   Google Scholar
• Pittet D, Harbarth SJ. The intensive care unit. In: Hospital Infections, JV Bennett & Brachman eds, (4th Edn), Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Chapt 25, 1998: 382-402.
   Google Scholar
• Martinez V, Bossi P, Bricaire F. Problemes therapeu-tiques lies aux infections bacteriennes chez les patients infectes par le virus de l'immunideficience humaine (VIH). Antibiotiques 2000; 2 (4): 221–227.
   Google Scholar
• Pitout JD, Sanders CC, Sanders WEJr. Antimicrobial resistance with focus on beta-lactam resistance in Gram-nega-tive bacilli. Am J Med 1997; 103: 51–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barza M. Principles of tissue penetration of antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1981; 8 (suppl C): 7-28.
   Google Scholar
• Garraffo R. Apport de la pharmacologie a l'optimisa-tion d'une antibiotherapie. Antibiotiques 2001; 3: 17–26.
   Google Scholar
• Lipman J, Gomersall CD, Gin T, Joynt GM, Young RJ. Continuous infusion ceftazidime in intensive care: a random-ized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 43: 309–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schentag JJ. Antimicrobial action and pharmacokinet-ics/ pharmacodynamics: The use of AUIC to improve efficacy and avoid resistance. J Chemother 1999; 11 (6): 426–439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chastre J, Fagon JY, Trouillet JL. Diagnosis and treat-ment of nosocomial pneumonia in patients in intensive care units. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21 (suppl 3): S226-S237.
   Google Scholar
• Recommendations of American Thoracic Society Board. Hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults: diagnosis, assessment of severity, initial antimicrobial therapy and pre-ventive strategies. A consensus statement. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 1996; 153: 1711–1725.
   Google Scholar
• Guidelines of Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 811.
   Google Scholar
• Laing RBS, Mackenzie AR, Shaw H, Gould IM, Douglas JG. The effect of intravenous-to-oral switch guidelines on the use of parenteral antimicrobials in medical wards. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 42: 107–111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linden PK. Clinical implications of nosocomial gram-positive bacteremia and superimposed antimicrobial resistance. Am J Med 1998; 104 (5A): S24-33.
   Google Scholar
• Tan TQ, Mason E, Ou CN, Kaylan SL. Use of intra-venous rifampin in neonates with persistent staphylococcal bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 2401–2406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glauser M, Boogaerts M, Cordonnier C, et al. Empiric therapy of bacterial infections in severe neutropenia. Clin Microbiol Infect 1997; (Suppl A) 3: S77-S86.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes WT, Armstrong D, Bodey GP, et al. Guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with unexplained fever. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 551–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cordonnier C, Herbrecht R, Pico JL, et al. Cefepime-amikacin vs ceftazidime-amikacin as empiric therapy for febrile episodes in neutropenic patients: a comparative study. Clin Infect Dis. 1997; 24: 41–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cometta A, Calandra T, Gaya H et al. Monotherapy with meropenem versus combination therapy with ceftazidime plus amikacin as empiric therapy for fever in granulocytopenic patients with cancer. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 1108–1115.
   Google Scholar
• Wysocki M, Pean Y, Delatour F, et al. Continuous infu-sion of vancomycin for severe methicillin-resistant staphylococ-cal infections. Intens Care Med 1996; 22: S325.
   Google Scholar
• Finegold SM. Aspiration pneumonia, lung abscess, and empyema. In: Respiratory infections: diagnosis and manage-ment. Pennington JE, Ed. 3rd ed. New-York: Raven Press Ltd. 1994: 311-322.
   Google Scholar
• Sherertz RJ, Garibaldi RA, Kaiser AB, et al. Consensus paper on the surveillance of surgical wound infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992; 13: 599–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohnen J, Solomkin J, Dellinger E, Bjornson H, Page C. Guidelines for clinical care: antiinfective agents for intra-abdominal infections. Recommendations of the Surgical Infection Society. Arch Surg 1992; 127: 83–89.
   Google Scholar
• Martin C, et al; Groupe d'Experts. Recommandations pour La pratique de l'antibioprophylaxie en chirurgie. Societe Française d'Anesthesie et de Reanimation. Actualisation 1999. Antibiotiques 1999; 1 (2): 176-188.
   Google Scholar
• American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference. Definition of sepsis and organ failure guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med 1992; 20: 864–874.
   Google Scholar
• Pfaller MA, Cormican MG. Microbiology: the role of the clinical laboratory. In: Prevention and Contol of Nosocomial Infections. RP Wenzel, Ed. (3d edn) Baltimore, Maryland: William & Wilkins, Chapt 8: 1997: 96-118.
   Google Scholar
• Weber DJ, Rutala WA. Environmental issues and noso-comial infections. In: Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections. RP Wenzel, Ed. (3d Edn). Baltimore, Maryland: William & Wilkins, Chapt 25, 1997: 491-514.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler RE, Fung-Tong J. Susceptibility of bacterial iso-lates to I3-lactam antibiotics from US clinical trials over a 5-year period. Am J Med 1996; 100 (6A): 13S-19S.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer RC, Bauernfeind A, Garcia-Rodriguez J, et al. Surveillance of the current resistance of nosocomial pathogens to antibacterials. Clin Microbiol Infect1997; (Suppl 1) 3: S21-S35.
   Google Scholar
• Farinas-Alvarez C, Farinas MC, Fernandez-Mazarrasa C, Llorca J, Casanova D, Delgado-Rodriguez M. Analysis of risk factors for nosocomial sepsis in surgical patients. Br J Surg 2000; 87 (8): 1076–1081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe WR, Jackson GC. Gram negative bacteremia: etiology and ecology. Arch Intern Med 1962; 110: 847–855.
   Google Scholar
• Altemeier WA, Burke JF, Pruiit BA, Sandusky WR. Manual on control of infections in surgical patients, Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Rubinstein E, Lode H, Grassi C. Ceftazidime monother-apy vs ceftriaxone/tobramycin for serious hospital acquired gram-negative infections. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 1217–1228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Yu VL. Combination therapy versus monotherapy for gram-negative bacteraemia: a commentary. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999; 11: 7–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leibovici L, Paul M, Poznanski O, et al. Monotherapy versus beta-lactam-aminoglycoside combination treatment for Gram-negative bacteremia: a prospective, observational study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1127–1133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korvick JA, Peacock JE, Mudder RR, et al. Addition of rifampicin to combination antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: prospective trial using the zelen proto-col. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 620–625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bert F, Lambert-Zechovsky N. Pseudomonas aerugi-nosa: actualitês sur la resistance aux I3-lactamines et implica-tions thêrapeutiques. Antibiotiques 2000; 2 (3): 195–201.
   Google Scholar
• Bergogne-Bêrêzin E, Towner KJ. Acinetobacter spp as nosocomial pathogens: microbiological, clinical, and epidemio-logical features. Clin Microbiol Rev 1996; 9: 148–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders CC. Chromosomal cephalosporinases respon-sible for multiple resistance to newer I3-lactam antibiotics. Ann Rev Microbiol 1987; 41: 573–593.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clavo-Sanchez AJ, Giron-Gonzalez JA, Lopez-Prieto D, et al. Multivariate analysis of risk factors for infection due to penicillin resistant and multidrug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: a multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 1052–1059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cookson B, Morrison D, Marples R. Antibiotic resis-tance. Nosocomial gram-positive infection. J Med Microbiol 1997; 46: 439–442.
   Google Scholar
• Cercenado E, Eliopoulos GM, Wennersten CB, et al. Absence of synergistic activity between ampicillin and van-comycin against highly vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 2201–2203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moellering RC, Linden PK, Reinhardt J, et al. The effi-cacy and safety of quinupristin/dalfopristin for the treatment of infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcis fae-cium. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44: 251–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagon JY, Patrick H, Haas DW, et al. Treatment of Gram-positive nosocomial pneumonia. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 753–762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drew RH, Perfect JR, Srinath L, et al. Treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections with quinupristin-dalfopristin in patients intolerant or failing prior therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46: 775–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rupp ME, Ulphani JS, Fey PD, Batscht K, Mack D. Characterization of the importance of polysaccharide intercel-lular adhesion/hemagglutinin of Staphylococcus epidermidis in the pathogenesis of biomaterial-based infection in a mouse foreign body infection model. Infect Immun 1999; 67: 2627–2632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent JL, Preiser JC. Management of critically ill patients with severe sepsis. J Chemother 1999; 11 (6): 524–529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haley RW, Quade DH, Freeman HE, CDC SENIC Planning Committee. Study on the efficacy of nosocomial infection control (SENIC Project): summary of study design . Am J Epidemiol 1980; 11: 472.
   Google Scholar
• Schekler WE. The role of professional and regulatory organizations in infection control programs. In: Hospital Infections, Bennett JV & Brachman PS, Ed. (4th Edn). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, Chapt 11, 1998: 175-180.
   Google Scholar
• Du Mouln G. Minimizing the potential for nosocomial pneumonia: architectural, engineering and environmental con-siderations for the intensive care unit. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1989; 8: 69–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar