Acute Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae Infections in Community-Acquired Pneumonia and Exacerbations of COPD or Asthma: Therapeutic Considerations

REFERENCES

• Blasi F, Cosentini R, Tarsia P. Chlamydia pneumoniae respiratory infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2000; 13: 161–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Principi N, Esposito S, Blasi F, Allegra L; Mowgli Study Group. Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in children with community-acquired lower respi-ratory tract infections. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1281–1289.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hammerschlag MR. Chlamydia pneumoniae and the lung. Eur Respir J 2000; 16: 1001–1007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammerschlag MR. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2001; 14: 181–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plouffe JF. Importance of atypical pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: S35–S39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almirall J, Bolibar I, Vidal J, et al. Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a population based study. Eur Respir J 2000; 15: 757–763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monno R, De Vito D, Losito G, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae in community-acquired pneumonia: seven years of experience. J Infect 2002; 45: 135–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn DL. Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is evidence? Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999; 83: 271–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraft M, Cassell GH, Henson JE, et al. Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the airways of adults with chron-ic asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158: 998–1001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi S, Murphy TF. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2000: a state-of-the-art review. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14: 336–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman D, Lieberman D, Ben-Yaakov M, et al. Infectious etiologies in acute exacerbation of COPD. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 40: 95–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman D, Ben-Yaakov M, Lazarovich Z, Ohana B, Boldur I. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in acute exacerba-tions of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: analysis of 250 hospitalizations. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 20: 698–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman D, Lieberman D, Printz S, et al. Atypical pathogen infection in adults with acute exacerbation of bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167: 406–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogulkoc N, Karakurt S, Isalska B, et al. Acute puru-lent exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 349–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karnak D, Beng-sun S, Seder S, Kayacan O. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Respir Med 2001; 95: 811–816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Paol EA, Bestall JC, Jeffries DJ, We JA. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 1418–1422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson GC, Seemungal TA, Bhowmik A, Wedzicha JA. Relationship between exacerbation frequency and lung function decline in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2002; 57: 847–852.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White AJ, Gompertz S, Stockley RA. Chronic obstruc-tive pulmonary disease. 6: The aetiology of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2003; 58: 73–80.
   Google Scholar
• Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA. Viral infections in obstructive airway diseases. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2003; 9: 111–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson R. Bacteria, antibiotics and COPD. Eur Respir J 2001; 17: 995–1007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Hertzen L, Toyryla M, Gimishanov A, et al. Asthma, atopy and Chlamydia pneumoniae antibodies in adults. Clin Exp Allergy 1999; 29: 522–528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soler N, Torres A, Ewig S, et al. Bronchial microbial patterns in severe exacerbations of COPD requiring mechani-cal ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 1498–1505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atmar RL, Guy E, Guntupalli KK, et al. Respiratory tract viral infections in inner-city asthmatic adults. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 2453–2459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teichtahl H, Buckmaster N, Pertnikovs E. The inci-dence of respiratory tract infection in adults requiring hospital-ization for asthma. Chest 1997; 112: 591–596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadopoulos NG, Johnston SL. Viruses and asthma exacerbations. Thorax 1998; 53: 913–914.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyashita N, Niki Y, Nakajima M, Kawane H, Matsushima T. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis and COPD. Chest 1998; 114: 969–971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wark PA, Johnston SL, Simpson JL, Hensley MJ, Gibson PG. Chlamydia pneumoniae Immunoglobulin A reac-tivation and airway inflammation in acute asthma. Eur Respir J 2002; 20: 834–840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi F, Cosentini R, Tarsia P, Capone P, Allegra L. Atypical pathogens and asthma: can they influence the natural history of the disease? Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 2001; 56: 276–280.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cook PJ, Davies P, Tunnicliffe W, Ayres JG, Honeybourne D, Wise R. Chlamydia pneumoniae and asth-ma. Thorax 1998; 53: 254–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Routes JM, Nelson HS, Noda JA, Simon FT. Lack of correlation between Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers and adult-onset asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 105: 391–392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saikku P. Diagnosis of Chlamydia pneumoniae. Clin Microbiol Infect 1998; 4: S7–S13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dowell SF, Peeling RW, Boman J, et al. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (Canada). Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 492–503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apfalter P, Boman J, Nehr M, et al. Application of blood-based polymerase chain reaction for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae in acute respiratory tract infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 20: 584–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Thoracic Society. Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary dis-ease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: S77–S121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballows A, Harsler WJ. Manual of clinical microbiology, 5th ed. American Society for Microbiology, Woshington, DC. 1991, 209–553.
   Google Scholar
• Vincent F, Petitjean J, Filmont JE, et al. Acute respira-tory Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in adults. Value of direct gene amplification diagnosis. Rev Mal Respir 1999; 16: 1131–1137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soto FJ, Varkey B. Evidence-based approach to acute exacerbations of COPD. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2003; 9: 117–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seemungal TA, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, et al. Respiratory viruses, symptoms and inflammatory markers in acute exacerbations and stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 1618–1623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA, MacCallum PK, Johnston SL, Lambert PA. Chlamydia pneumoniae and COPD exacerbation. Thorax 2002; 57: 1087–1089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith CB, Golden CA, Kanner RE, Renzetti AD Jr. Association of viral and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections with acute respiratory illness in patients with chronic obstruc-tive pulmonary diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 121: 225–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn DL, Dodge RW, Galubjatnikov R. Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheez-ing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. JAMA 1991; 266: 225–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegra L, Blasi F, Centanni S, et al. Acute exacerbations of asthma in adults: role of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Eur Respir J 1994; 7: 2165–2168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar