121
Views
27
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Antibiotics and Antifungals in Neonatal Intensive Care Units: A Review

Pages 5-20 | Published online: 18 Jul 2013

References

  • Fanos V, Dall'Agnola A. Antibiotics in neonatal Infections: a review. Drugs 1999; 58 (3): 405–427 .
  • Isaacs D, Moxon R. Handbook of neonatal infections. 3rd edition Edinburgh, W.B. Saunders Elsevier. 2003
  • Tom-Revzon C. Strategic use of antibiotics in the neona-tal intensive care unit. J Perinat Neonat Nurs 2004; 18 (3): 241–258.
  • de Hoog M, Mouton JW, van der Anker JN. New dos-ing strategies for antibacterial agents in the neonate. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2005; 10 (6): 185–194.
  • McGuire W, Clerihew L, Fowlie PW. Infection in preterm infant. BMJ 2004; 329,1277–1280.
  • St. Geme III JW, Polin R. Neonatal sepsis. Progress in diagnosis and management. Drugs 1988; 36: 784–800.
  • Aujard Y. Neonatal infections-a special case? Res Clin Forums 199; 719: 67-77.
  • Saez-Llorens X, Vargas S, Guerra F. et al. Application of new sepsis definitions to evaluate outcome of pediatric patients with severe systemic infections. Pediatr Infect Dis 1995; 14: 557–561 .
  • Tessin I, Trollfors B, Thinger K. Incidence and etiology of neonatal septicemia and sepsis in Western Sweden 1975-1986. Acta Paediatr Scand 1990; 79: 1023-1030 .1°
  • Sohn AH, Garrett DO, Sinkowitz-Cochran RL et al. Prevalence of nosocomial infections in neonatal intensive care unit patients: results from the first national point-prevalence survey. J Pediatr 2001; 139: 821–827.
  • Brodie SB, Sands KE, Gray JE et al. Occurrence of nosocomial bloodstream infections in six neonatal intensive care units. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 56–65 .
  • Stoll BJ, Gordon T, Korones SB. et al. Early-onset sep-sis in very low birth weight neonates: a report from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. J Pediatr 1996; 129: 72–80 .
  • Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, et al. Late onset sep-sis in very low birth weight neonates: The experience of the NICHHD National Research Network. Pediatrics 2002; 110: 285–291.
  • Sbarbati A, Fanos V, Bernardi P, Tata. L. Rapid diag-nosis of fungal infection of intravascular catheter in newborns by scanning electron microscopy. Scanning 2001; 23 (6): 376–378.
  • Addams- Chapman I, Stoll BJ. Nosocomial infections in the nursery. In: Avery's diseases of the newborn (eighth edi-tion) Philadelphia, USA. Taeusch HW, Ballard RA, Gleason CA (Hs.), Elsevier Saunders. 2005.
  • Rubin LG, Sanchez PJ, Siegel J et al. Evaluation and treatment of neonates with suspected late-onset sepsis. A sur-vey of neonatologists' practices. Pediatrics 2002; 110: 1–7.
  • Fanos V, Cataldi L. Antibacterial-induced nephrotoxicity in the newborn. Drug Safety 1999; (20): 245-267.
  • Thompson PJ, Greenough A, Hird MF, et al. Nosocomial bacterial infections in very low birth weight infants. Eur J Pediatr 1992; 151: 451–454.
  • Toll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, Wright LL, Carlo WA, Eherkranz et al. Changes in pathogens causing early-sep-sis in very low birth- weight infants. N Eng J Med 2002; 340: 240–247.
  • Gaynes RP, Edwards JR, Jarvis WR, Culver DH, Tolson JS, Martone WJ. Nosocomial infections among neonates in high-risk nurseries in the United States. Pediatrics 1996; 98 (3): 357–361.
  • Freeman RM, Ingram DL, Gross I, et al. A half century of neonatal sepsis at Yale. Am J Dis Child 1981; 135: 140–145.
  • Khoory BJ, Vino L, Dall'Agnola A, Fanos V. Candida infections in newborns: a review. J Chemother 2001; 11 (5): 367–378.
  • Saiman L, Ludigton E, Pfaller M. Risk factors for can-didemia in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Patients. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey Study Group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 319–324.
  • Moreira MEL. Controversies about the management of invasive fungal infections in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2005; 81 (1 S): S52-S58.
  • Kaufman D. Strategies for prevention of neonatal inva-sive candidiasis. Semin Perinatol 2003; 27 (5) : 414–24.
  • Isaacs D, Wilkinson AR. Antibiotic use in the neonatal period. Arch Dis Child 1987; 62: 204–207.
  • Jackson MA, Shelton S, Nelson JD, McCracken GH Jr. Relatively penicillin-resistant pneumococcal infections in pedi-atric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis 1984; 3 (2): 129–132 .
  • Mehta G, Kumari S. Multi-resistant Staphylococcus haemolyticus in a neonatal unit in New Dehli. Ann Trop Paediatr 1997; 17 (1): 15–20.
  • McCracken Jr GH, Ginsberg C, Chrane DF, Thomas ML, Horton U. Clinical pharmacology of penicillin in new-born infants. J Pediatr 1973; 82 (4): 692-698.
  • Saez-Llorens X, McCracken GH Jr. Clinical pharmacol-ogy of antibacterial agents. In: Infectious diseases of the fetus and newborn infant (5th ed.) Philadelphia, USA. Remington JS, Klein JO (Hs), WB Saunders 2001: 1419-1466.
  • McCracken Jr GH, Kaplan JM. Penicillin treatment for congenital syphilis: a critical reappraisal. JAMA 1974; 228 (7): 855-858.
  • Toltzis P, Blumer JL. Antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacteria in critical care setting. Ped Clin North Am 42 1995; (3): 687-702.
  • Adam D. Beta-lactam antibiotics: their role in the man-agement of infections in children. Ped Infect Dis J 1998; 17: 4–7.
  • Aujard Y. Antibiotic therapy in maternal-fetal infections [in French]. Ann Pediatr 1991; 38 (8 suppl.): 539-543.
  • Fanos V, Verlato G, Dal Moro A, Chiaffoni GP, Padovani EM. Staphylococcus epidermidis isolation and antibiotic resistance in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Chemother 1995; 7 (1): 26–29.
  • Klein JF, Shahrivar F. Use of percutaneous silastic cen-tral venous catheters in neonates and the management of infectious complications. Am J Perinatol 1992; 9 (4): 261–264 .
  • Paap CM, Nahata MC. Clinical pharmacokinetics of antibacterial drugs in neonates. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990; 19 (4): 280–318.
  • Edwards MS. Antimicrobial therapy in pregnancy and neonates. Clin Perinatol 1997; 24 (1): 91–105.
  • Mial-Hallen VM, Whitelaw AG, Darrel JH. Ticarcillin plus clavulanic acid (Timentin) compared with standard antibi-otic regimen in the treatment of early and late neonatal infec-tions. Br J Clin Pract 1988; 42: 273–279 .
  • Placzek M, Whitelaw A, Want S, Sahathevan M, Darrell J. Piperacillin in early neonatal infection. Arch Dis Child 58 1983;(12): 1006-1009.
  • Kacet N, Roussel Delvallez M, Gremillet C, Dubos JP, Storme L, Lequien P. Pharmacokinetic study of piperacillin in newborns relating to gestational and postnatal age. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992; 5: 365–369 .
  • Flidel-Rimon 0, Friedman S, Gradstein S, Bardenstein R, Shinwell ES. Reduction in multiresistant nosocomial infec-tions in neonates following substitution of ceftazidime with piperacillin/tazobactam in empiric antibiotic therapy. Acta Paediatr2003; 92 (10): 1205–1207.
  • Berger A, Kretzer V, Apfalter P, Rohrmeister K, Zaknun D, Pollak A. Safety evaluation of piperacillin/tazobac-tam in very low birth weight infants. J Chemother 2004; 16 (2): 166–171.
  • Speer ME, Taber LH, Clark DB, Rudolph AJ. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of benzathine penicillin G in the neonate. J Pediatr 1977; 9 (6): 996–997 .
  • Kuigh M. Adverse drug reactions in neonates. J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 34 (2): 128–135.
  • Nahata MV, DeBolt SL, Powell DA. Adverse effects of methicillin, nafcillin and oxacillin in pediatric patients. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1982; 4 (3-4): 117–123.
  • Del Rio M, Mc Cracken GH, Nelson GH, et al. Pharmacokinetics and cerebrospinal fluid bactericidal activity of ceftriaxone in the treatment of patients with bacterial meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1982; 22: 621–627.
  • Segue P, Safran C, Quinion F, et al. Comparative pharmacokinetics of four new cephalosporins: moxalactam, cefotaxime, cefoperazone and ceftazidime in neonates. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1984; 7 (1 Suppl): 105–108.
  • Cunha BA. Third generation cephalosporines: a review. Clin Ther 1992; 14:, 616-652.5°
  • Mc Cracken GH. Use of third generation cephalosporins for treatment of neonatal infections. AJDC 1985; 139: 1079–1080.
  • Kaplan SL. Serious pediatric infections. Am J Med. 1990; 88 (4A Suppl.): 18S-24S.
  • Puthicheary SD, Goldsworthy PJ. Ceftazidime and cefo-taxime - the clinician's choice. Clin Therap 1984; 11 (2): 186–204.
  • De Louvois J. Special antibacterial problems in the neonate. Res Clin Forums 1986;. 8 (4): 79–95.
  • De Louvois J. Acute bacterial meningitis in the new-born. J Antimicr Chemoth 1994; 34 (A Suppl.): 61-73.
  • Word BM, Klein JO. Current therapy of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in infants and children: a pool of directors of programs in pediatric infection diseases. Ped Infect Dis J 1988; 7: 267–270.
  • Klass PE, Klein JO. Therapy of bacterial sepsis, menin-gitis and otitis media in pediatric infectious diseases. Ped Infect Dis J 1992; 11: 702–707 .
  • Dajani AS. Cefotaxime-safety, spectrum and future prospects. Res Clin Forums 1997; 19 (7): 57–64.
  • Dajani AS, Pokowsky LH. Delayed cerebrospinal fluid sterilization, in vitro bactericidal activities and side effects of selected beta-lactams. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 731 (Suppl.): 31S-42S.
  • Sykes RB, Bonner BP, Swabb EA. Modern betalactam antibiotics. Pharmacol Ther 1985; 29: 321–352.
  • Pessoa Silva CL, Meurer Moreira B, Camara AlmeidaV, et al. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors for infection and colonization. J Hosp Inf 2003; 53 (3): 198–206.
  • Lee SO, Lee ES, Park SY et al. Reduced use of third-generation cephalosporins decreases the acquisition of extend-ed-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004; 25 (10): 832-837.
  • Royle J, Halasz S, Eagles G, et al. Outbreak of Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneu-moniae in a neonatal unit. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonat Ed 1999; 80: F64–F68.
  • Brinas L, Lantero M, Zarazaga M, et al. Outbreak of SHV-5 beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal-pediatric intensive care unit. Microb Drug Resist 2004; 10 (4): 354–358.
  • Wachino J, Doi Y, Yamane K, et al. Nosocomial spread of ceftazidime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae strains produc-ing a novel class a beta-lactamase, GES-3, in a neonatal inten-sive care unit in Japan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48 (6): 1960–1967.
  • Stone PW, Gupt A, Loughrey M, et al. Attributable costs and length of stay of an extended-spectrum beta-lacta-mase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae outbreak in a neona-tal intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003; 24 (8): 601–606.
  • de Louvois J, Dagan R, Tessin I. A comparison of cef-tazidime and aminoglycoside based regimens as empirical treatment in 1316 cases of suspected sepsis in the newborn. Eur J Ped 1992; 151 (12): 876–884.
  • Meyers BR. Comparative toxicities of third-generation cephalosporins. Am J Med 1985; 79: 96–103.
  • Bryan CS, John FR, Pai MS et al. Gentamicin versus cefotaxime in the therapy of neonatal sepsis. AJDC 1985; 139: 1086–1089.
  • Modi N, Damjianovich V, Cooke RWI. Outbreak of cephalosporin resistant Enterobacter cloacae infection in a neonatal intensive care unit. Arch Dis Child 1987; 62: 148–151.
  • Fernandez-Guerrero M, Gudial F, Rodriguez-Torres A, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia: comparative multicenter trial between monotherapy with cefotaxime and treatment with antibiotic combinations. Infection 1991; 19: 320–325.
  • Meyers BR. Comparative toxicities of third generation cephalosporins. Am J Med 1985; 79 (A Suppl.): 96-103.
  • Kelkar PS, Li JT-C. Cephalosporin allergy. N Eng J Med 2001; 345 (11): 804–809.
  • Jacobs RF. Ceftriaxone-associated cholecystitis. Pediatr Inf Dis J 1988; 7: 434–436.
  • Feketty FR. Safety of parenteral third generation cephalosporins. Am J Med 1990; 88 (Suppl.): 38S-44S.
  • Ragnar Norrby S. Adverse reactions and interactions with newer cephalosporins and cephamycin antibiotics. Med Toxicol 1986; 1: 32–46.
  • Lascari AD, Amyot KA. Fatal hemolysis caused by cef-triaxone. J Pediatr 1995; 126: 816–817.
  • Bernini JC, Mustafa MM, Sutor II, et al. Fatal hemoly-sis induced by ceftriaxone in a child with sikle cell anemia. J Pediatr 1995; 126: 813–815.
  • Aronson B, Mollby R, Nord CE. Antimicrobial agents and clostridium difficile in acute enteric disease: epidemio-logic data from Sweden. J Infect Dis 1985; 151: 476–481.
  • Tune BM, Fravert D. Mechanism of cephalosporin nephrotoxicity: a comparison of cephaloridine and chephalogl-icyn. Kidney Int 1980; 18: 591–600.
  • Silverblatt F. Pathogenesis of nephrotoxicity of cephalosporins and aminoglycosides: a review of current con-cepts. Rev Infect Dis 1982; 4: 360–365.
  • Mannion JC, Block R, Popovich NC. Cephalosporin-aminoglycoside synergistic nephrotoxicity: fact or fiction? Drug Int Clin Pharm 1981; 15: 248–255.
  • Tune BM. Renal tubular transport and nephrotoxicity of beta-lactam antibiotics: structure-activity relationship. Miner Eletrol Metab 1994; 20: 221–231.
  • Kaloyanides GJ. Antibiotic-related nephrotoxicity. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994; 9 (4 Suppl.): 130S-134S.
  • Nambiar S, Rodriguez WJ. Penicillins, betalactamase inhibitors, cephalosporins and other beta-lactams. In: Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology. Therapeutic principles in practice SJ. Yaffe, JV Aranda (Eds.), Lippincott William & Wilkins. Philadelphia USA 2005.
  • Shaad VB. The cephalosporin compounds in severe neonatal infections. Eur J Ped 1984; 14: 143–146 .
  • Tune BM. Nephrotoxicity of beta-lactam antibiotics: mechanism and strategies for prevention. Ped Nephrol 1997; 11 (6): 768–772 .
  • Padovani EM, Fanos V, Boner A, et al. Clinical efficacy and tolerance of ceftazidime as sole antibiotic in neonatal infections Clin Tri J 1985; 3: 224–230 .
  • Tune BM. The nephrotoxicity of cephalosporin antibi-otics: structure-activity relationships. Comm Toxicol 1986; 1: 145–147 .
  • Fink S, Karp W, Robertson A. Ceftriaxone effect on bilirubin-albumin binding. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 873-875.9°
  • Wadsworth JJ, Suh B. In vivo displacement of bilirubin by antibiotics and 2-hydroxybenzoylglycine in newborns. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1988; 32: 83–87.
  • Del Rio MA, Chrone DF, Shelton S, et al. Ceftriaxone versus ampicillin and chloramphenicol for the treatment of bacterial meningitis in children. Lancet 1985; 1: 1241–1244
  • Lebel MH, McCracken GH. Aztreonam: review of the clinical experience and potential uses in pediatrics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988; 7: 331–339.
  • Bosso JA, Black PG. The use of aztreonam in pediatric patients: a review. Pharmacotherapy 1991; 11: 20–25.
  • Brodgen R, Heel RC. Aztreonam - a review of its antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and thera-peutic use. Drugs 1986; 3: 96–130.
  • Borderon JC, Rostegar A, Ramponi N, et al. Effects of aztreonam on aerobial fecal flora of the infant (in French). Pathol Biol 1987; 35: 665–668.
  • Uauy R, Mire C, Argyle R, et al. Metabolic tolerance to arginine: implications for the safe use of arginase salt-aztreon-am combination in the neonatal period. J Pediatr 1981; 118: 965–970.
  • Cuzzolin L, Fanos V, Zambreri D, et al. Pharmacokin-etics and renal tolerance of aztreonam in premature infants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 1726–1728.
  • Umatia MA, Odio CM, Castro E, et al. Evaluation of aztreonam and ampicillin versus amikacin and ampicillin for treatment of neonatal bacterial infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9: 175–180.
  • Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW. Developmental pharmacology. Drug disposition, action and therapy in infants N Eng J Med 2003; 349 (12): 1157–1169.
  • Neu HC. Why carbapenems ? Curr Opin Infect Dis 1994; 7 (1 Suppl.): 3S-10S.
  • Blumer JL: Pharmacokinetic determinants of carbapen-em therapy in neonates and children. Pediatr Infect Dis 1996; 15 (8): 733-737.
  • Clissold SP, Todd PA, Campoli Richards DM. Imipenem/cilastatin: a review of its antibacterial activity phar-macokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 1987; 33 (3): 183–241.
  • Freij BJ, McCracken GHJr, Olsen KD, et al. Pharmacokinetics of imipenem-cilastatin in neonates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 27 (4): 431–435.
  • Gruber WC, Rench MA, Garcia Prats JA, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of imipenem-cilastatin in neonates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 27 (4): 511–514.
  • Begue P, Baron S, Challier P. Pharmacokinetics and clinical evaluation of imipenem/cilastatin in children and neonates. Scand J Infect Dis 1987; (52 Suppl.): 40-45.
  • Aktas E, Yigit N, Yazgi H, Ayyildiz A. Detection of antimicrobial resistance and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production in Klebsiella pneumoniae strains from infected neonates. J Int Med Res 2002; 30 (4): 445–448.
  • Eng RH, Munsif AR, Yangco BC, et al. Seizure propensity with imipenem. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149 (8): 1881–1883.
  • Arrietta A. Use of meropenem in treatment of serious infections in children: review of currente licterature. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24 (Suppl 2): 207S-212S.
  • Bradley JS. Meropenem: a new extremely broad spec-trum beta-lactam antibiotic for serious infections in pediatrics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997; 16: 263–268.
  • Morales R. Ertapenem: una nueva clas de carbapenem. Riv Chil Infectivol2003; 20 (4): 270–276.
  • Gundes S, Arisoy AE, Kolaly F, et al. An outbreak of SHV-5 producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal inten-sive care unit; meropenem failed to avoid fecal colonization. New Microbiol 2005; 28 (3): 231–236.
  • Chattopadhyay B. Newborns and gentamicin - how much and how often? J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49: 13–16.
  • Guignard JP. Drugs and the neonatal kidney. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1982; 4 (1 Suppl.): 19-27.
  • Daly JS, Dodge RA, Clew RH et al. Effect of time and temperature on inactivation of aminoglycosides by ampicillin at neonatal dosage. J Perinat 1997; 17 (1): 42–45.
  • Tessin I, Trollfors B, Thiringer K et al. Ampicillin-aminoglycoside combination as initial treatment for neonatal septicaemia or meningitis. A retrospective evaluation of 12 years' experience. Acta Paediatr Scand 1991; 80 (10): 911-916.
  • Cooper MD, Keeney RE, Lyons SF et al. Synergistic effects of ampicillin-aminoglycoside combination on group B streptococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1979; 15 (3): 484–486.
  • Aujard Y. Gentamicin in pediatrics [in French]. Ann Pediatr 1987; 34 (9): 677–685.
  • Siber GR, Smith AL, Levin MJ. Predictability of peak serum concentration with dosage based on body surfaced area. J Pediatr 1979; 94 (1): 135–138.
  • Granati B, Assael BM, Chung M et al. Clinical phar-macology of netilmicin in preterm and term newborn infant. J Pediatr 1985; 106: 664–666.
  • Kenyon CF, Knoppert DC, Lee SK et al. Amikacin pharmacokinetics and suggested dosage modifications for the preterm infants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990; 34 (2): 265–268.
  • de Haag M, Shoemaker RC, Mouton JW et al. Tobramycin pharmacokinetics in neonates. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997; 62 (4): 392–399.
  • Kasik JW, Jenkins S, Lenshen MP et al. Postconceptional age and gentamicin elimination half-life. J Pediatr 1985; 106: 502–505.
  • Semchuck WN, Shevchuck YM, Sankaron K et al. Prospective, randomized, controlled evaluation of a gentamicin loading dose in neonates. Biol Neonate 1995; 67: 13–20.
  • Cordero L, Arwood L, De Cenzo J et al. Serum netilmicin levels in premature ACA infants. Am J Perinatol 1984; 4 (1): 36–40.
  • Assael BM, Parini R, Rusconi F et al. Influence of intrauterine maturation on the pharmacokinetics of amikacin in the neonatal period. Pediatr Res 1982; 16: 810–815.
  • Padovani EM, Pistolesi C, Fanos V et al. Pharmacokinetics of amikacin in neonates. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1993; 20: 167–173.
  • Zarfin Y, Koren G, Maresky D et al. Possible indomethacin-aminoglycoside interactions in preterm infants. J Pediatr 1985; 106: 511–512.
  • Bingen E, Lambert-Zekowsky N, Aujard Y. Determination of aminoglycosides in the newborn infant. Significance and methods [in French]. Pediatrie 1986; 41 (2): 135–145.
  • de Hoog M, Mouton JW, Shoemaker RC, et al. Extended interval dosing of tobramycin in neonates: implica-tions for therapeutic drug monitoring. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002; 71: 349-358.13°
  • de Hog M, van Zanten BA, Hop WC, Overbosch E, Weisglas-Kuperus N, van den Anker JN. Newborn hearing screening: tobramycin and vancomycin are not risk factors for hearing loss. J Pediatr 2003; 142: 41–46.
  • Moore RD, Lietman PS, Smith CR. Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: importance of the ratio of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration. J Infect Dis 1987; 155: 93–99.
  • de Hoog M, Mouton JW, van den Anker JN. The use of aminoglycosides in newborn infants. In: Introduction to Paediatric and Perinatal Drug Therapy. Choonara I, Nunn AJ, Kearns G (Eds.), Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK. 1993: 117-140.
  • Murphy JE. Prediction of gentamicin peak and trough concentrations from six extended-interval dosing protocols for neonates. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2005; 62: 823–827.
  • Contopoulos-Ioannidis DG, Giotis ND, Baliatsa DV, Ioannidis JPA. Extended-interval aminoglycoside administra-tion for children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 11–118.
  • De Alba Romero C, Gomez Castillo E, Manzanares Secades C et al. Once daily gentamicin doing in neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998; 17: 1169–1171.
  • Miron D. Once daily dosing of gentamicin in infants and children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20: 1169–1173.
  • Uijtendaal EV, Rademaker CM, Schobben AF et al. Once-daily versus multiple-daily gentamicin in infants and chil-dren. Ther Drug Monit 2001; 23: 506–513.
  • Bass KD, Larkin SE, Paap C et al. Pharmacokinetics of once-daily gentamicin dosing in pediatric patients. J Pediatr Surg 1998; 33: 1104–1107.
  • Fanos V, Cataldi L. Aminoglycoside-induced nephro-toxicity in the newborn. In: Neonatal nephrology in progress. Cataldi L, Fanos V, Simeoni U (Eds), Agora, Lecce, Italy, 1996: 152-181.
  • Meyer C, Witte J, Hildmann A et al. Neonatal screen-ing for hearing disorders in infants at risk: incidence, risk fac-tors, and follow-up. Pediatrics 1999; 104: 900–904.
  • Guan MX, Fischel-Godsian N, Attardi G. A biochemi-cal basis for the inherited susceptibility to aminoglycoside oto-toxicity. Hum Mol Genet 2000; 9 (12): 1787–1793.
  • Best E j, Palasanthiran P, Gazarian M. Extended-inter-val aminoglycosides in children: more guidance is needed. Pediatrics 2005; 115 (3): 827-828.
  • Baja' NI, Palmer K. Gentamicin usage in newborns: an audit. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88: 645.
  • Mercado MC, Brodsky NL, McGuire MK, Hurt H. Extended interval dosing of gentamicin in preterm infants. Am J Perinatol 2004; 21 (2): 73–77.
  • Kosalaraksa P, Janthep P, Jirapradittha J et al. Once versus twice daily dose of gentamicin therapy in Thai neonates. J Med Assoc Thai 2004; 87 (4): 372–376.
  • Lanao JM, Calvo MV, Mesa JA, et al. Pharmacokinetic basis for the use of extended interval dosage regimens of gentamicin in neonates. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 42 (1): 193–198.
  • Berger A, Kretzer V, Gludovatz P, et al. Evaluation of an amikacin loading dose for nosocomial infections in very low birthweight infants. Acta Pediatrica 2004; 93 (3): 356–360.
  • Rastol A,gAgarwal G, Pyati S, Pildes RS. Comparison of two gentamicin schedules in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Inf Dis J 2002; 21 (3): 234–240.
  • Hansen A, Forbes P, Arnold A, O'Rourke E. Once-daily gentamicin dosing for the preterm and term newborn: proposal for a simple regimen that achieves target levels. J Perinatol 2003; 23 (8): 635–639.
  • Knight JA, Davis EM, Manouilov K, Hoie EB. The effect of postnatal age on gentamicin pharmacokinetics in neonates. Pharmacotherapy 2003; 23 (8): 992–996.
  • Bouzas L, Hermida J, Tutor JC. Effect of analytical inaccuracy on dose adjustment for gentamicin using the Abbottbase Pharmacokinetics systems. Clin Lab 2004; 50 (3-4): 187–191.
  • Thureen PJ, Reiter P, Gresores A, et al. Once versus Twice-daily gentamicin dosing in neonates >34 weeks' gesta-tion: cost-effectiveness analysis. Pediatrics 1999; 103 (3): 594–598.
  • Rodvold KA, Gentry CA, Plank GS et al. Bayesan forecasting of serum vancomycin concentrations in neonates and infants. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17: 239–246.
  • Nagl M, Neher C, Hager J, Pfausler B, Schmutzhard E, Allerberger F. Bactericidal activity of vancomycin in cere-brospinal fluid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 1932–1934.
  • Klein JO, Michael Mercy S, Mercy M,. Bacterial sep-sis and meningitis. In: Infectious disease of the fetus and new-born infant, 4th edn. Remington JS, Klein J, eds, Saunders WBLIth edn, Philadelphia, USA. 1995: 835-878.
  • Edwards MS, Baker CJ. Sepsis in the newborn. In: Krugman's Infectious Diseases of Children. Gershon AA, Hotez PJ,Katz SL, eds. Mosby, 11th edn Philadelphia, USA. 2004: 545-563.
  • Stoll BJ, Gordon T, Korones SB et al. Late onset-sep-sis in very low birth weight neonates: a report from TheNational Institute of Child Health and Human Development National Research Network. J Pediatr 1996; 129: 63–71.
  • de Hoog M, van den Anker JN, Mouton JW. Vancomycin: pharmacokinetics and administration regimens in neonates. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004; 43: 417–440.
  • Craft AP, Finer NN, Barrington KJ. Vancomycin for prophylaxis against sepsis in preterm neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000.
  • Rodvold KA, Everett JA, Pryka RD et al. Pharmacokinetics and administration regimens of vancomycin in neonates, infants and children. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 33 (1): 32–51.
  • Fanos V, Kacet N, Mosconi G. A review of teicoplanin in the treatment of serious neonatal infections. Eur J Pediatr 1997; 156: 423–427.
  • Grimsley C, Thomson AH. Pharmacokinetics and dose requirements of vancomycin in neonates. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1998; 81: F221–227.
  • McDougal A, Ling EW, Levine M. Vancomycin phar-macokinetics and dosing in premature neonates. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17: 319–326.
  • Gous AG, Dance MD, Lipman J, Luyt DK, Mathivha R, Scribante J. Changes in vancomycin pharmacokinetics in critically ill infants. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995; 23: 678–682.
  • Degraeuwe PL, Beuman GH, van Tiel FH, Maertzdorf WJ, Blanco CE. Use of teicoplanin in preterm neonates with staphylococcal late-onset neonatal sepsis. Biol Neonate 1998; 73: 287–294.
  • Reed MD, Yamashita TS, Myers CM, Blumer JL. The pharmacokinetics of teicoplanin in infants and children. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39: 789–796.
  • Bailie GR, Neal D. Vancomycin ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity: a review. Med Toxicol 1998, 3: 376–386.
  • Shaad UB, Nelson JD, McCracken GH. Pharmacology and efficacy of vancomycin for staphylococcal infections in children. Rev Infect Dis 1981; 3 Suppl: 282S-288S.
  • odio C, Mohs E, Sklar FH et al. Adverse reactions to vancomycin used as prophylaxis for CSF shunt procedures. Am J Dis Child 1984; 138 (1): 17-19.
  • Bayer Rs, Bocchini Jr JA, Brown Eg. Selective use of vancomycin to prevent coagulase-negative staphylococcal nosocomial bacteriemia in high risk very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17 (3): 179–183.
  • Fanos V, Mussap M, Khoory BJ, et al. Renal tolerabili-ty of teicoplanin in a case of neonatal overdose. J Chemother 1998; 10 (5): 381–384.
  • Nahata MC, Powell DA. Comparative bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol after intravenous chloramphenicol succinate in premature infants and older patients. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1983; 6 (5): 23–32.
  • Rajchgot P, Prober C, Soldin S, et al. Chloramphenicol pharmacokinetics in the newborn. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1983; 6 (5): 305–314.
  • Mulhall A, de Louvois J, Hurley R. The pharmacoki-netics of chloramphenicol in the neonate and young infant. J Antimicrob Chemother 1983; 12 (6): 629–639.
  • Ristuccia AM. Chloramphenicol: clinical pharmacology in pediatrics. Ther Drug Monit 1985; 72 (2): 159–167.
  • Shankaran S, Kauffman RE. Use of chloramphenicol palmitate in neonates. Pediatr 1984; 105 (1): 113–116.
  • Mulhall A, de Louvois J, Hurley R. Chloramphenicol toxicity in neonates: its incidence and prevention. Br Med J1983; 287 (6403): 1424–1427.
  • Mulhall A, Berry DJ, de Louvois J. Chloramphenicol in pediatrics: current prescribing practice and the need to moni-tor. Eur J Pediatr 1988; 147 (6): 574–578.
  • Sabel KG, Brandberg A. Treatment of meningitis and septicemia in infancy with a trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination. Acta Pediatr Scand 1975; 54: 25.
  • Ardati KO, Thirumoorthi MC, Dajani AS. Intravenous trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of serious infections in children. J Pediatr 1979; 95 (5 Pt 1): 801-806.
  • Janner D, Bork J, Baum M, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in infants after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 1996; 15 (8): 758–763.
  • Bang AT, Bang RA, Morankar VP, et al. Pneumonia in neonates: can it be managed in the community? Arch Dis Child 1993; 68 (5 Spec No): 550-556.
  • Butler DR, Kuhn RJ, Chandler MH. Pharmacokinetics of anti-infective agents in paediatric patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1993; 26 (5): 374–395.
  • Springer C, Eyal F, Michel J. Pharmacology of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in newborn infants. J Pediatr 1982; 100 (4): 647–650.
  • Joyce CS De Azevedo, Mcgavin M, Duncan C, et al. Prevalence and mechanism of macrolide resistance in invasive and non invasive group Streptococcus isolates from Onthario, Canada. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 12: 3504–3508.
  • Buhrer C, Hoehn T, Hentschel J. Role of ery-thromycin for treatment of incipient chronic lung disease in preterm infants colonised with Ureaplasma urealyticum. Drugs 2001; 61 (13): 1813–9.
  • Jonsson B, Rylander M, Faxelius G. Ureaplasma ure-alyticum, erythromycin and respiratory morbidity in high risk newborn. Acta Paediat 1998; 87 (10): 1079–84.
  • Mabanta CG, Pryhuber GS Wienberg GA, Phelps DL. Erythromycin for the prevention of chronic lung disease in intubated preterm infants at risk for, or colonized or infected with Ureaplasma urealyticum. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003744 (2003).
  • Sarna SK, Soegel KH, Koch TR, et al. Gastrointestinal motor effect of erythromicin in humans. Gastroenterology 1991; 1001: 1488–1496.
  • Eihnnawy AA, Sarks JW, Armentrout D, Huseby V, Berseth CL. Erythromycin fails to improve feeding outcome in feeding-intolerant preterm infant. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2003; 37 (3): 281–286.
  • Costalos C, Gounaris A, Varhalama E et al. Erythromycin as a prokinetic agent in preterm infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2002; 34: 23–5.
  • Ng pc, So K W, Fung K S C, et al. Randomized con-trol study of oral erythromycin for treatment of gastrointestinal dysmotility in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001; 84: 177–182.
  • Stenson BJ, Middlemist L, Lyion A. Influence of ery-thromycin on establishment of feeding in preterm infants: observations from randomized controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal 1998; 79: 212–214 .
  • Burns L, Hodgman J. Studies of prematures given ery-thromycin estolate. Am J Dis Child 1963; 106: 280–284.
  • Patamasucon P, Kaojarern S, Kusmiesz H, et al. Pharmacokinetics of erythromycin ethylsuccinate and estolate in infants under 4 months of age. Antimicrob Agents Chemo-ther 1981; 19: 736–740.
  • Gouyon BJ, Benoit A, Betremieux P et al. Cardiac toxicity associated with intravenous lactobionate in preterm infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994; 13: 840–1.
  • Mahon BE, Rosenman MB, Kleiman MB. Maternal and infant use of erythromycin and other macrolide antibiotics as a risk factors for infantile hyperthrophic pyloric stenosis. J Pediatr 2001; 139 (3): 380–4.
  • Krowchuk D, Seashore JH. Complete biliary obstruc-tion due to erythromycin estolate administration in an infant. Pediatrics 1979; 64 (6): 956–958.
  • Sims PJ, Waites KB, Crouse DT. Erythromycin lacto-bionate toxicity in preterm neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994; 13 (2): 164–167.
  • Ludden TM. Pharmacokinetic interactions of the macrolide antibiotics. Clin Pharmacokinet 1985; (1): 63-79.
  • martin C, Bontegeat G, Bildstein G, et al. Evolution of congenital toxoplasmosis. Critical study on 12 treated cases (in French): Ann Ped 1969; 16: 117–128.
  • Friedman DS, Curtis RC, Schauer SL, et al. Sourveillance for transmission and antibiotics adverse effects among neonates and adults exposed to healthcare worker with pertussis. Infection Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004; 25: 967–73.
  • Honein MA, Paulozzi II, Himerlight IM, et al. Infantile hypertrophic stenosis after pertussis prophylaxis with ery-thromycin: a case review and a cohort study. Lancet 1999; 354: 2101–5.
  • CDC 2005 Recommended Antimicrobial agents for the treatment and postexposure prophylaxis of pertussis. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtlm
  • Betriu C, Culebras E, Gomez M, et al. Erythromycin and clindamycin resistance and telithromycin susceptibility in Streptococcus agalatiae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 1112-1114.
  • Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell CH. Antibiotic suscep-tibilities and therapeutic options for Ureaplasma urealyticum infections in neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992 ;(1) : 23-29.
  • Koren G, Zarfin Y, Maresky D, et al. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous clindamycin in newborn infants. Pediatr Pharmacol 1986; 5 (4): 287–292.
  • Le Frock JL, Molavi A, Prince RA. Clindamycin. Med Clin North Am 1982; 66 (1), 103–120.
  • Tan TQ, Mason EO Jr, Ou CN, et al. Use of intra-venous rifampicin in neonates with persistent staphylococcal bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37 (11): 2401–2406.
  • Zinner SH, Lagast H, Klastersky J. Antistaphylococcal activity of rifampin with other antibiotics. J Infect Dis 1981; 144 (4): 365–371.
  • Shama A, Patole SK, Whitehall JS. Intravenous rifampicin in neonates with persistent staphylococcal bacter-aemia. Acta Pediatrica 2002; 91 (6): 670–673.
  • Martell M, de Ben S, Weinberger M. Growth and development in preterm infants receiving fluoroquinolones. J Perinat Med 1996; 24 (3): 287–91.
  • Lumbiganon P, Pengsaa K, Sookpranee T. Ciprofloxacin in neonates and its possible adverse effect on the teeth. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991; 10 (8): 619–620.
  • Drossou-Agakidou V, Roilides E, Papakyriakidou-Kouliouska P, et al. Use of ciprofloxacin in neonatal sepsis: lack of adverse effects up to 1 year. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23 (4): 346–349.
  • Agnihiotri N, Kaistha N, Gupta V. Antimicrobial sus-ceptibility from neonatal septicaemia. J Infect Dis 2004; 57 (6): 273–275.
  • Rosenblatt JE, Edson RS. Metronidazole. Mayo Clin Proc 1987; 58 (3): 154–157.
  • Jager RE, Doyle PE, Baird II, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of metronidazole in the newborn infant. J Pediatr 1982; 100 (4): 651–654.
  • upadhyaya p, Bhatnajar V, Basu N. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous metronidazole in neonate. J Pediatr Surg 1988; 23 (3): 263-265.
  • Behra-Miellet J, Calvet L, Dubreuil L. Activity of line-zolid against anaerobic bacteria. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2003; 22: 28–34.
  • Wallace RJ Jr, Brown-Elliott BA, Ward SC, Crist CJ, Mann LB, Wilson RW. Activities of linezolid against rapidly growing mycobacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 764–767.
  • Sweeney MT, Zurenko GE. In vitro activities of linezol-id combined with other antimicrobial agents against staphylo-cocci, enterococci, pneumococci and selected gram-negative organisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 1902–1906.
  • Kaplan SL, DeVille JG, Yogev R et al. Linezolid versus vancomycin for treatment of resistant gram-positive infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22: 677–686.
  • Rubinstein E, Isturiz R, Standford HC et al. Worldwide assessment of linezolid's clinical safety and tolerability: com-parator-controlled phase III studies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 1824–1831.
  • Jungbluth GL, Welshman IR, Hopkins NK. Linezolid pharmacokinetics in pediatric patients: an overview. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22: S153–5157.
  • DeVille JG, Adler S, Azimi PH et al. Linezolid versus vancomycin in the treatment of known or suspected resistant gram-positive infections in neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22: S158–5163.
  • Zivox (linezolid) [prescribing information]. Kalamazoo, MI: Pharmacia and Upjohn Company, 2002.
  • Kuter DJ, Tillotson GS. Hematologic effects of antimi-crobials: focus on the oxazolidinone linezolid. Pharmacothera-py 2001; 21: 1010–1013.
  • Orrick JJ, Johns T, JaneIle J, Ramphall R. Thrombocytopenia secondary to linezolid administration: what is the risk? Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 348–349.
  • Polin RA, Parravicini E, Regan JA, Taeusch W. Bacterial sepsis and meningitis. In: Avery diseases of the new-born. 8th edition. Taeusch HW, Ballard RA, Gleason Ca (Eds.), Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia USA (2005).
  • Saiman L, Ludigton E, Pfaller M. Risk factors for can-didemia in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Patients. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey Study Group, Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 319–24.
  • Moreira MEL. Controversies about the management of invasive fungal infections in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2005; 81 (1 S): S52-S58.
  • Kaufman D. Strategies for prevention of neonatal inva-sive candidiasis. Semin Perinatol 2003; 27 (5): 414–24.
  • Frattarelli DA, Reed MD, Giacoia GP, Aranda JV. Antifungals in systemic neonatal candidiasis. Drugs 2004; 54: 949–58.
  • Pappas PG, Rex JH, Sobel JD, Filler SG, Dismukes WE, WAlsh TJ, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines for treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 161–89.
  • Starke JR, Mason JrEO, Kramer WC, Kaplan SL. Pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B in infants and children. J Infect Dis 1987; 155 766–74.
  • Baley JE, Meyers C, Kliegman RM, Jacobs MR, Blumer JL. Pharmacokinetics, outcome of treatment, and no toxic effects of amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine in neonates. J Pediatr 1990; 116: 791–7.
  • Juster- Reicher A, Leibovitz E, Linder N, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome ) in the treatment of neonatal candidiasis in very low birth weight infants. Infection 2000; 28 (4): 223–6.
  • Deray G. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49 51: 37–41.
  • Holler B, Omar SA, Farid MD, Patterson MJ. Effects of fluid and electrolyte management on amphotericin B-induced nephrotoxicity among extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 608–616.
  • Dupont B. Overview of the lipid formulations of amphotericin B. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49 51: 31–36.
  • Cetin H, Mehemet Y, Arisu M, Hilmioglu S, Metin D, Kulturasay N. The efficacy of two different lipid- based amphotericin B in neonatal Candida septicemia. Pediatr Int 2005; 47: 676–680.
  • Zervos M, Meunier F. Fluconazole: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1993; 3: 147–70
  • Saxen H, Hoppu K, Pohjavuori M. Pharmacokinetics of fluoconazole in very low birthweight during the first two weeks of life. Clin Pharm Ther 1993; 54: 269–77.
  • Sarvikivi E, Lyytikainen 0, Soll DR, et al. Emergence of fluconazole resistance in Candida parapsilosis strain that caused infections in neonatal intensive Care Unit. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43 (6): 2729-2735.
  • Manzoni P, Arisio R, Mostert M, et al. Prophylactic flu-oconazole is effective in preventing fungal colonization and fungal systemic infections in preterm neonates: a single-center, 6-year, retrospective cohort study. Pediatrics published on line Dec 1 (2005).
  • Austin NC, Darlow B. Prophylactic oral antifungal agents to prevent Systemic candida infection in preterm infants. Cochrane database of systematic review, 3 (2005)
  • Muldrew KM, Maples HD, Stowe CD, Jacobs RF. Intravenous voriconazole therapy in a preterm infant. Pharmacotherapy 2005; 25 (6): 893–8.
  • Odio C, Araya R, Pinto LE, et al. Caspofungin therapy of neonates with invasive candidiasis. Pediatr Inf Dis J 2004; 23: 1093–1097.
  • Harris H. et al. Endotracheal intubation and its rela-tionships to bacterial colonization and systemic infection of newborn infants. Pediatrics 1974; 56: 816–23.
  • Inglis G.D, Davies MW. Prophylactic antibiotics to reduce morbidity and mortality in neonates with umbilical artery catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005; (4): CD005251.
  • Craft AP, Finer NN, Barrington KJ. Vancomycin for prophylaxis against sepsis in preterm neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000; (2): CD001971.
  • Fanos V, Cataldi L. Antibiotics or surgery for vesi-coureteric reflux in children. Lancet. 2004; 364 (9446): 1720–2.
  • Mangiarotti P, Pizzini C, Fanos V. Antibiotic prophy-laxis in children with relapsing urinary tract infections: review. J Chemother 2000; 12 (2): 115–23.
  • Geogetown University Center. NICU: Infectious dis-ease. Available at: http://gucfm.georgetown.edu/welchij/nets-cut/neonatoloczy/neonatalsurvival/nicuIDhtml. Accessed March 16, 2004.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.