Beyond Risk: An Ecological Paradigm to Prevent Global Chemical Pollution

References

• Thornton J. Pandora's Poison: Chlorine, Health, and a New Envi-ronmental Strategy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Colborn T, Dumanoski D, Myers JP. Our Stolen Future. New York: Dutton, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Environment Programme. Final Report: UNEP/ POPS/INC. 4/5-Report of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Com-mittee for an International Legally Binding Instrument for Imple-menting International Action on Certain Persistent Organic Pollu-tants on the Work of Its Fourth Session; Bonn, 20-25 March 2000. Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhn TS. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago, IL: Uni-versity of Chicago Press, 1970.
   Google Scholar
• Covello VT, Merkhofer MW. Risk Assessment Methods: Approaches for Assessing Health and Environmental Risks. New York: Plenum, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Tatsukawa R, Tanabe S. Fate and bioaccumulation of persistent organochlorine compounds in the marine environment. In: Baum-gartner DJ, Dudall IM (eds). Oceanic Processes in Marine Pollution. Vol 6. Malabar, FL: R. E. Krieger, 1990: 39-55.
   Google Scholar
• Allan R, Peakall D, Cairns V, et al. Toxic Chemicals in the Great Lakes and Associated Effects. Vol I: Contaminant Levels and Trends. Ottawa, ON, Canada: Environment Canada, 1991.
   Google Scholar
• Gregor D, Gummer W. Evidence of atmospheric transport and dep-osition of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in Canadian Arctic snow. Environ Sci Technol. 1989; 23: 561–5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton GW, Walla MD, Bidleman TF, Barrie LA. Polycyclic aro-matic and organochlorine compounds in the atmosphere of northern Ellesmere Island, Canada. J Geophys Res. 1991;96 (D6): 10867–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrie L, Macdonald R, Bidleman T, et al. Chapter 2: Sources, occur-rence and pathways. In: Jensen J, Adare K, Shearer R (eds). Cana-dian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report. Ottawa, ON, Canada: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Simonich SL, Hites RA. Global distribution of persistent organochlo-rine compounds. Science. 1995; 269: 1851–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ono M, Kanna N, Wakimoto T, Tatsukawa R Dibenzofurans: a greater global pollutant than dioxins? Evidence from analyses of open ocean killer whale. Marine Poll Bull. 1987; 18: 640–3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Bruneau S, Laliberte C, Muir DCG, Norstrom RI Inuit exposure to organochlorines through the aquatic food chain in Arctic Quebec. Environ Health Perspect. 1993; 101: 618–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norstrom RJ, Simon M, Muir DCG. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in marine mammals of the Canadian North. Environ Poll. 1990; 66: 1–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Great Lakes Water Quality Board. 1987 Report on the Great Lakes Water Quality. Windsor, ON, Canada: International Joint Commis-sion, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Wester PG, Deboer J. Determination of polychlorinated terphenyls in biota and sediments with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Organohalogen Compounds. 1993; 14: 121–4.
   Google Scholar
• Fuhrer U, Ballschmitter K. Bromochloromethoxybenzenes in the marine troposphere of the Atlantic Odean: a group of organohalo-gens with mixed biogenic and anthropogenic origin. Environ Sci Technol. 1998; 32: 3308–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brun GL, Howell GD, °Neill HJ. Spatial and temporal patterns of organic contaminants in wet precipitation in Atlantic Canada. Envi-ron Sci Technol. 1991; 25: 1249–61.
   Google Scholar
• Glotfelty DE, Seiber JN, Lilhedahl LA. Pesticides in fog. Nature. 1987; 325: 602–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goolsby D, Thurman EM, Pomes ML. Herbicides and their metabo-lites in rainfall: origin, transport and deposition patterns across the midwestern and northeastern United States, 1990-1991. Environ Sci Technol. 1997; 31: 1325-33.
   Google Scholar
• DeLorey D, Cronn D, Farmer J. Tropospheric latitudinal distribu-tions of CF2C12, CFC13, N20, CH3CC13 and CC14 over the remote Pacific Ocean. Atmos Environ. 1988; 22: 1481-94.
   Google Scholar
• Makhijani A, Gurney KR. Mending the Ozone Hole. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Plumacher J, Schroder P. Accumulation and fate of C2-chlorocar-bons and trichloroacedc acid in spruce needles from an Austrian mountain site. Organohalogen Compounds. 1993; 14: 301–2.
   Google Scholar
• Onstot J, Ayling B., Stanley J. Characterization of HRGC/MS Unidentified Peaks from the Analysis of Human Adipose Tissue. Vol I: Technical Approach. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Pro-tection Agency Office of Toxic Substances (560/6-87-002a), 1987.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Exposure and Health Assess-ment for 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds [review draft]. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• DeVito MJ, Birnbaum LS, Farland WH, Gasiewicz T. Comparisons of estimated human body burdens of dioxinlike chemicals and TCDD body burdens in experimentally exposed animals. Environ Health Perspect. 1995; 103: 820–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tryphonas H. Immunotoxicity of PCBs (Arodors) in relation to Great Lakes. Environ Health Perspect. 1995;103, suppl 9: 35-46.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Chemical testing and infor-mation gathering. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 1998. Available at: http:www.epa.gov/oppintr/chemtesttindex.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Simmons JE. Nephrotaxicity resulting from multiple chemical expo-sures and chemical interactions. In: Yang RSH (ed). Toxicology of Chemical Mixtures. New York: Academic Press, 1994: 335–60.
   Google Scholar
• Hrelia P, Maffei F, Vigagni F, et al. Interactive effects between trichloroethylene and pesticdes at metabolic and genetic level in mice: mechanism-based predictions of interactions. Environ Health Perspect. 1994; 102, suppl 9: 31-4.
   Google Scholar
• Oesch F, Oesch-Bardomowicz, Arens J, et al. Mechanism-based pre-dictions of interactions. Environ Health Perspect. 1994; 102, suppl 9: 5-10.
   Google Scholar
• Daly AK, Cholerton S, Armstrong M, Idle JR. Genotyping for poly-morphisms in xenobiotic metabolism as a predictor of disease sus-ceptibility: mechanism-based predictions of interactions. Environ Health Perspect. 1994; 102, suppl 9: 55-62.
   Google Scholar
• Mehendale HM. Amplified interactive toxicity of chemicals at non-toxic levels: mechanistic considerations and implications to public health: mechanism-based predictions of interactions. Environ Health Perspect. 1994; 102, suppl 9: 139-50.
   Google Scholar
• van Birgelen APJM, Fase KM, van derk Kolk J, et al. Synergistic effect of 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl and 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin on hepatic porphyrin levels in the rat. Environ Health Perspect. 1996; 104: 550–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germolex DR, Yang RSH, Ackermann MP, et al. Toxicology studies of a chemical mixture of 25 groundwater contaminants: inununo-suppression in B6C3F mice. Fund Appl. Toxicol. 1991; 13: 377–87.
   Google Scholar
• Yang RSH. Toxicology of chemical mixtures derived from hazardous waste sites or application of pesticides and fertilizers. In: Yang RSH (ed). Toxicology of Chemical Mixtures. New York: Academic Press, 1994: 99–117.
   Google Scholar
• Daly HB, Stewart PW, Lunkenheimer L, Sargent D. Maternal con-sumption of Lake Ontario salmon in rats produces behavioral changes in the offspring. Toxicol Ind Health. 1998; 14: 25–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Swart RL, Ross PS, Vos JG, Osterhaus ADME. Impaired immu-nity in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) exposed to bioaccumulated environmental contaminants: review of a long-term feeding study. Environ Health Perspect. 1996;104, suppl 4: 823-8.
   Google Scholar
• Reijnders PJH. Reproductive failure in common seals feeding on fish from polluted coastal waters. Nature. 1986; 324: 456–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer A, Reinjders PJH, Koeman JH. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-contaminated fish induces vitamin A and thyroid hormone deficiency in the common seal (Phoca vitulina). Aquat Toxicol 1989; 15: 99–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Research Council. Toxicity Testing: Strategies to Determine Needs and Priorities. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984.
   Google Scholar
• Roe D, Pease W, Florini K, et al. Toxic Ignorance: The Continuing Absence of Basic Health Testing for Top-Selling Chemicals in the United States. New York: Environmental Defense Fund, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Greisemer RA, Eustis SL. Gender differences in animal bioassays for carcinogenicity. J Occup Med. 1994; 36: 855–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lucier GW, Schecter A. Human exposure assessment and the National Toxicology Program. Environ Health Perspect. 1998; 106: 623–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environ-mental Programme. Report of the Third Meeting of the Ozone Research Managers. Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Jarman WM, Simon M, Norstrom RJ, et al. Global distribution of tris(4-chlorophenyl)methanol in high trophic level birds and mam-mals. Environ Sci Technol. 1992; 26: 1770–4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lascombe I, Beffa D, Ruegg U, Tarradellas J, Wahli W. Estrogen activity assessment of environmental chemicals using in vitro assays: identification of two new estrogenic compounds. Environ Health Per-spect. 2000; 108: 621–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suntio LR, Shiu WY, Mackay D. A review of the nature and proper-ties of chemicals present in pulp mill effluents. Chemosphere. 1988; 17: 1249–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald RW, Ikonomou MG, Paton DW. Historical inputs of PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCBs to a British Columbia interior lake: the effects of environmental controls on pulp mill emissions. Environ Sri Technol. 1998; 32: 331–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonsor N, McCubbin N, Sprague J. Municipal Industrial Strategy for Abatement: Kraft Mill Effluents in Ontario. Toronto, ON, Canada: Environment Ontario, 1988.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Background Document for the Development of PIC Regulations from Hazardous Waste Incin-erators. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Wienecke J, Kruse H, Huckfeldt U, Eickoff W, Wasserman O. Organic compounds in the flue gas of a hazardous waste incinerator. Chemosphere. 1995; 30: 907–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green AES, Wagner JC. toxic products of medical waste incinera-tion. In: Green AES (ed). Medical waste incineration and pollution prevention. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993: 1–36.
   Google Scholar
• Jay K, Stieglitz L. Identification and quantification of volatile organic components in emissions of waste incineration plants. Chemosphere. 1995; 30: 1249–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standards for owners and operators of hazardous wastes incinerators and burning of hazardous wastes and boilers and industrial furnaces; proposed and supplemen-tal proposed rule, technical corrections, and request for comments. Fed Reg. April 27,1990; 55: 82–211.
   Google Scholar
• Onodera S, Ogawa M, Yamawaki C, Yamagishi K, Suzuki S. Pro-duction of polychlorinated phenoxyphenols predioxins by aqueous chlorination of organic compounds. Chemosphere. 1989; 19: 675–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rappe C, Swanson S, Glas B, Kringstadt K, de Sousa P, Abe Z. Formation of PCDDs and PCDFs by the chlorination of water. Chemo-sphere. 1989; 19: 1875–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens A, Moore L, Slocum C, Smith L, Seeger D, Ireland J. By-products of chlorination at ten operating utilities. In: Jolley EL, Condie LW, Johnson JD, et al. (eds). Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects, Vol 6. Chelsea, MI: Lewis, 1990: 579-604.
   Google Scholar
• Jolley EL. Basic issues in water chlorination: a chemical perspective. In: Jolley EL, Bull RJ, Davis WP, Jatz S, Roberts MH, Jacobs VA (eds). Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact, and Health Effects, Vol 5. Chelsea, MI: Lewis, 1985: 19-38.
   Google Scholar
• Amy G, Greenfield J, Cooper W. Correlations between measurements of organic halide and specific halogenated volatile organic compounds in contaminated groundwater. In: Jolley RL, Condie LW, Johnson JD, et al. (eds). Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects, Vol 6. Chelsea, MI: Lewis, 1990: 691-702.
   Google Scholar
• Ventresque C, Bablon G, Leg-ube B, Jadas-Hecart A, Dore D. Devel-opment of chlorine demand kinetics in a drinking water treatment plant. In: Jolley EL, Condie LW, Johnson JD, et al. (eds). Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Vol 6. Chelsea, MI: Lewis, 1990: 715-28.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ambient Water Quality Cri-teria Document: DDT. Washington, DC, 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Rossberg M, Lendle W, Togel A, et al. Chlorinated hydrocarbons. In: Gerhartz W (ed). Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 5th ed. New York: VCH Publishers, 1986: A6: 233-398.
   Google Scholar
• Environment Agency. Regulation of dioxin releases from the Run-corn operations of ICI and EVC. Warrington, U.K, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Dow Chemical. Waste Analysis Sheet: heavy ends from the distilla-tion of ethylene dichlorine in ethylene dichloride production. Plaque-mine, LA: Dow, February 21,1990.
   Google Scholar
• Akock RE, Behnisch PA, Jones KC, Hagenmaier H. Dioxin-like PCBs in the environment-human exposure and the significance of sources. Chemisphere. 1998; 37: 1457–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutzinger O. Dioxin danger: incineration status report. Analyt Chem. 1986; 586: 633–42.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Inventory of Sources of Dioxin in the United States. Washington, DC: EPA, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Public Health Statement: Lead, Atlanta, GA: U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Lindqvist O, Johansson K, Aastrup M, et al. Mercury in the Swedish environment: recent research on causes, consequences and corrective methods. Water Air Soil Poll. 1991; 55: 1–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacyna JM, Munch J. Anthropogenic mercury emission in Europe. Water Air Soil Poll. 1991; 56: 51–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiedler H, Hutzinger O, Hosseinpour J. Analysis and remedial actions following an accidental fire in a kindergarten. Organohalo-gen Compounds. 1993; 14: 19–23.
   Google Scholar
• Wynne B. Uncertainty and environmental learning. In: Jackson T (ed). Clean Production Strategies: Developing Preventive Environ-mental Management in the Industrial Economy. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis, 1993: 63-84.
   Google Scholar
• Kliewer SA, Lehmann JM, Willson TM. Orphan nuclear receptors: shifting endocrinology into reverse. Science. 1999; 284: 757–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roughgarden J, May RM, Levin SA (eds). Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Theobald HM, Peterson RE. Developmental and reproductive toxi-city of dioxins and other Ah receptor agonists. In: Schecter A (ed). Dioxins and Health. New York: Plenum, 1994: 309–46.
   Google Scholar
• Seegal RF, Schantz SL. Neurochemical and behavioral sequelae of exposure to dioxins and PCBs. In: Schecter A (ed). Dioxins and Health. New York: Plenum, 1994: 409–48.
   Google Scholar
• Landrigan PJ, Graham DG, Anger WK, et al. Environmental Neuro-toxicology. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Rose G. Environmental factors and disease: the man made environ-ment. BMJ. 1987; 294: 963–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raffensperger C, Ticlmer J (eds). Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle. Washing-ton, DC: Island Press, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• International Joint Commission. Fifth Biennial Report on Great Lakes Water Quality. Windsor, ON, Canada, 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson T. Principles of clean production-an operational approach to the preventive paradigm. In: Jackson T (ed). Clean Production Strategies: Developing Preventive Environmental Management in the Industrial Economy. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis, 1993: 143-64.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Cleaner Technologies Sub-stitutes Assessment for Professional Fabricare Processes. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (EPA/744-B-98-001), 1998.
   Google Scholar
• O'Brien M. Making Better Environmental Decisions: An Alternative to Risk Assessment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Plimke E, Schessler R, Kaempf K. Konversion Chlorchemie. Wies-baden, Germany: Prognos AG and Hessiches Umweltministerium, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Chem-Info Services. A Technical and Socio-Economic Comparison of Options to Products Derived from the Chlor-alkali Industry. Burlington, ON, Canada: Environment Canada, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• International Joint Commission. Sixth Biennial Report on Great Lakes Water Quality. Windsor, ON, Canada, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Wines RI?, Nestmann ER, Miller PA, Orr JC, Munro IC. Scientific principles for evaluating the potential for adverse effects from chlori-nated organic chemicals in the environment. Regul Toxicol Phar-macol. 1993; 18: 313–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karol MH. Toxicological principles do not support the banning of chlorine. Fund Appl Toxicol. 1995; 24: 1–2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Public Health Association. Resolution 9304: Recognizing and addressing the environmental and occupational health problems posed by chlorinated organic chemicals. Am J Public Health. 1994; 84: 514–15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henschler D. Toxicity of chlorinated organic compounds: effects of the introduction of chlorine in organic molecules. Angewandte Chemie Int Edi. 1994; 33: 1920–35. [In English]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commoner B. Making Peace with the Planet. New York: Pantheon, 1990.
   Google Scholar
• VVahlstrom B, Lundqvist B. Risk reduction and chemicals control-lessons from the Swedish chemicals action programme. In: Jackson T (ed). Clean Production Strategies: Developing Preventive Environ-mental Management in the Industrial Economy. Ann Arbor, MI: Lewis, 1993: 237-60.
   Google Scholar
• Swedish Ministry of the Environment. Sweden's offensive policy on chemicals (Factsheet 6.1). Stockholm, Sweden, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Montzka SA, Butler JH, Elkins, INV, Thompson TM, Clarke AD, Lock LT. Present .and future trends in the atmosphere burden of ozone-depleting halogens. Nature. 1999; 398: 690–4.
   Google Scholar
• Cortes DR, Basu I, Sweet CW, Brice KA, Hoff RM, Hites RA. Tem-poral trends in gas-phase concentrations of chlorinated pesticides measured at the shores of the Great Lakes. Environ Sci Technol. 1998; 32: 1920–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffers P, Ward L, Woytowitch L, Wolfe N. Homogenous hydrolysis rate constants for selected chlorinated methanes, ethanes, ethenes and propanes. Environ Sci Technol. 1989; 23: 965–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Library of Medicine. Hazardous Substances Databank (on-line database). Available at: http:www.toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Rappe C, Kjeller LO, Kulp SE. Levels, profile and pattern of PCDDs and PCDFs in samples related to the production and use of chlorine. Chemosphere. 1991; 23: 1629–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oehme M, Mano S, Bjerke B. Formation of poly-chlorinated diben-zofurans and dibenzo-p-dioxins by production processes for mag-nesium and refuted nickel. Chemosphere. 1989; 18: 1379–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutzinger O, Fiedler H. Formation of Dioxins and Related Com-pounds in Industrial Processes. Pilot Study on International Infor-mation Exchange on Dioxins and Related Compounds #173. Brus-sels, Belgium: NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Heindl A, Hutzinger O. Search for industrial sources of PCDD/ PCDF: III. Short-chain chlorinated hydrocarbons. Chemosphere. 1987; 16: 1949–57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rappe C, Marldund S. Formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans by burning or heating chlorophenates. Chemosphere. 1978; 8: 269–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marldund S, Anderson R, Rappe C, et al. Emissions of PCDDs and PCDFs in gasoline and diesel fueled cars. Chemosphere. 1990; 20: 553–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberg LG, Wagman N, Andersson R, Rappe C. De novo formation of PCDD/F in compost and sewage sludge-a status report. Organo-halogen Compounds. 1993; 11: 297–302.
   Google Scholar
• Baker J, Hites R. Is combustion the major source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans to the environment? A mass balance investigation. Environ Sci Technol. 2000; 34: 2879–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar