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Commentaries

International Jurisprudence on Trade and Environmental Health: One Step Forward, Two Steps Back?

Pages 307-316 | Published online: 19 Jul 2013

References and Notes

  • Committee on Trade and Environment. Report of the Commit-tee on Trade and Environment. WT/CTE/ 1. Geneva: World Trade Organization, 1996.
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  • While GATT Article XX(b) explicitly refers to health, WTO Agreements do not contain clauses that specifically address environmental concerns. However, the reference in GATT XX(b) to “animal or plant life or health” can and has been interpreted to include certain environmental issues. In addi-tion, paragraphs (d) and (g) of GATT Article XX are regularly referred to in so-called ‘environmental disputes’. For more details, see for example: Committee on Trade and Environ-ment. GATT/WTO dispute settlement practice relating to GATT Article XX, paragraphs (b), (d) and (g). WT/CTE/W/ 203. Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2002. In the cases dis-cussed in this article-which relate to environmental health, rather than the protection of the environment per se-only paragraph (b) of GATT Article XX has been invoked and addressed in earnest.
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  • For an indication that this was probably (one of) the objec-tive(s) of the WTO challenge from the outset, see statement of Gary Joachim to the Committee on Agriculture of the US House of Representatives, dated 26 March 2003. Available: http:/ /www.amsoy. org/newsroom/releases/2003% 20releases/j oachim032601.htm [accessed 16/05/08]
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  • The key issue in the so-called Thai cigarette dispute was whether a Thai ban on the import of cigarettes was justified, even though the sale of locally produced cigarettes was allowed. Thailand tried to justify its ban, among others, on health grounds, argu-ing that (lighter) foreign cigarettes could induce certain popu-lation segments to smoke-notably women and adolescents, who were less inclined to smoke locally produced cigarettes. Thus, it was argued that the ban contributed to containing the number of smokers, and was justified under GAIT Article XX(b).
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  • This change is in line with earlier, comparable changes regard-ing the interpretation of “necessary” in the context of other paragraphs of GATT Article XX, such as XX(d). See reference 55. See also WTO. Korea-Measures affecting imports of fresh, chilled and frozen beef. Report of the Appellate Body. WT/DS161/AB/R, WT/DS169/AB/R. Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2000.
  • For a brief discussion of the implications of defining the ‘chosen level’ in this manner, see: Hannes Schloemann. Brazil Tyres: policy space confirmed under GATT XX. Geneve: Inter-national Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development. Bridges Trade BioRes 2008;8(3).
  • WTO. United States-Standards for Reformulated and Conven-tional Gasoline. Report of the Appellate Body. WT/DS2/AB/R. Geneva: World Trade Organization, 1996.
  • The costs of participating in a WTO dispute are relatively high for developing countries (especially small developing countries and least-developed countries), due to their lack of capacity (financial as well as otherwise) to bear the direct costs of a dis-pute, the relatively limited opportunities for retaliation, and the risk of a political or economic backlash. See Hoekman BM, Mavroidis PC. WTO dispute settlement, transparency and sur-veillance. The World Economy 2000;23 (4): 527-542; Shaffer G. The challenges of WTO law: strategies for developing country adaptation. World Trade Review, 2006:5: 177-198 and Alavi A. African countries and the WTO's dispute settlement mecha-nism. Development Policy Review. 2007;25 (1): 25-42.
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  • WTO. Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health. WT/MIN(01)/DEC/W/2. Doha: WTO Ministerial Conference, 2001.
  • Strictly speaking, decisions of Panels and the Appellate Body do not set precedents for subsequent rulings. However, in practice Panels and the Appellate Body do refer to, and rely on, the reports and reasoning of earlier cases.

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