REFERENCES AND NOTES
- A. P. Usher, A History of Mechanical Inventions, (McGraw—Hill, New York, 1929), Chapters XIII and XV.
- Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilisation, (Routledge, London, 1934).
- A. R. Ubbelohde, Man and Energy, (Hutchinson, London, 1954).
- R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology, Volume II, (Brill, Leiden, 1955), "Power", pp. 78–125.
- L. White Jnr., Medieval Technology and Social Change, (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1962).
- C. Cipolla, The Economic History of World Population, (Pelican Books, 1962).
- R. L. Hills, Power in the Industrial Revolution, (Manchester University Press, 1970).
- Louis C. Hunter, A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1780–1930, (University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1979), Volume 1, Water Power.
- Terry S. Reynolds, Stronger Than A Hundred Men, (Johns Hopkins Press, London, 1983).
- A. R. Ubbelohde, op. cit. (3), p. 13.
- R. J. Forbes, op. cit. (4), p. 78.
- M. I. Finley, "Technical Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World", The Economic History Review, 2nd Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (1965), p. 35.
- R. J. Forbes, op. cit. (4), p. 78.
- This short paper is not the place to review the vast and varied literature which deals exclusively or partly with water-power's origins. Suffice to say there is not, to my mind, a satisfactory account very largely because no account is complete. No one writer has ever got anything like all the evidence together in one place and appraised it in its totality. Elsewhere and on an appropriately larger scale I plan to rectify this situation. In the meantime by far the best and most up-to-date survey is T. S. Reynolds, op. cit. ( 9), Chapter 1.
- Richard Bennett and John Elton, History of Corn Milling, 4 Volumes, (London, 1898–1904). For Volume 2 see the modern reprint, Watermills and Windmills, (EP Publishing, Wakefield, 1973).
- Bennett and Elton, Volume 2, op. cit. (15), pp. 8–9.
- Bennett and Elton, Volume 2, op. cit. (15), p. 31.
- M. R. Cohen and I. E. Drabkin, A Source Book in Greek Science, (Harvard, Cambridge, Mass., 1958), pp. 318–320. Philo is by no means here discussing mechanical efficiency in any absolute sense. But he is presenting quantitative, and comparative, performance figures. Whether or not such an approach to an engineering problem is exceptional at this or later dates is most difficult to gauge and the problem generally speaking will benefit from further inquiry.
- Two standard English translations of Vitruvius are: De Architectura, translated by F. Granger, Loeb Classical Library, 2 vols, London, 1962; and Vitruvius. The ten books on architecture, translated by M. H. Morgan, Dover Publications, New York, 1960.
- Bennett and Elton, Volume 2, op. cit. (15), p. 32.
- Bennett and Elton, Volume 2, op. cit. (15), p. 61.
- Paul N. Wilson, "The Waterwheels of John Smeaton", Transactions of the Newcomen Society, Vol. XXX, (1955–57), pp. 32–33.
- P. A. Rahtz and K. Sheridan, "A Saxon watermill in Bolebridge Street, Tamworth", Transactions of the South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol. 13, 1972, pp. 9–16; also described in P. A. Rahtz, "Medieval Milling", CBA Research Report, No. 40, Medieval Industry, edited by D. W. Crossley (London, 1981), pp. 1–15.
- Bennett and Elton, Volume 2, op. cit. (15), p. 97.
- My thanks to Martin Watts of Totnes for drawing my attention to these two examples. For Old Windsor see D. M. Wilson, "Medieval Britain in 1957", Medieval Archaeology, Vol. 2, 1958, pp. 183–5. The Stroud case has not been published but see P. A. Rahtz, op. cit. (23), p. 6.
- Bennett and Elton, Volume 2, op. cit. (15), p. 101.
- Mark Hassall, Review of History of Technology, first annual volume, University of London Institute of Archaeology Bulletin, No. 17, 1980, p. 192.
- There is a full page photograph of the mosaic in J. Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, (Cambridge, 1965), Vol. 4, Pt. 2, opposite p. 359.
- This realistic qualification is expressed, and the wall painting reproduced, by Thorkild Schieler, Roman and Islamic Water-Lifting Wheels, (Odense Univeristy Press, 1973), pp. 154–5.
- Reproduced as Plate VII in G. Brett, "Byzantine Water-Mill", Antiquity, Vol. XIII, 1939, pp. 354–6. P. A. Rahtz, op. cit. (23), p. 3 and Fig. 1 suggests that a second mosaic in the Great Palace may depict a water-mill.
- This is Dr. Schieler's thought, op. cit. ( 29), p. 154. Most writers however accept that it is a mill; see also Bradford B. Blaine, "The Enigmatic Water-Mill", On Pre-Modern Technology and Science: A Volume of Studies in Honor of Lynn White, Jr., edited by Bert S. Hall and Delno C. West, (Malibu, Calif., 1976), p. 165 and note 35.
- The literature here is considerable. A good starting point is F. G. Simpson, Watermills and Military Works on Hadrian's Wall: Excavations in Northumberland, 1907–13, ed. by Grace Simpson, with a contribution on watermills by Lord Wilson of High Wray, (Kendal, 1976).
- I am grateful to my research student, Mr. R. J. Spain, for a sight of his detailed and unpublished account of the earlier ( 2nd and 3rd century) mill at Ickham. For the later, 4th century, installation see C. Young, "The Late Roman Water-Mill at Ickham, Kent, and the Saxon Shore", Collectanea Historica: Essays in Memory of Stuart Rigold, (Maidstone, 1981), pp. 32–39.
- W. J. Wedlake, "The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wilts, (1956–71)", Reports of the Research Committee, No. XL, (Society of Antiquaries, London, 1982), pp. 95–98. My thanks to Dr. M. J. T. Lewis for bringing this reference to my notice.
- For Woolaston see C. Scott Garrett, "Chesters Roman Villa, Woolaston", Archaeologia Cambrensis, Vol. XCIII, 1938, pp. 109, 122–3 and Plate 11B. The essential point here is the large size of the stones, 311 inches in diameter, which of itself does not prove water power.
- A-M. Romeuf, "Un moulin a Eau Gallo-Romain aux Martres-de-Veyre (Puy-de-Dome)", Revue d'Auvergne, 1978, Vol. 92, No. 2, pp. 23–41.
- An up-to-date account, and re-appraisal, is R. H. J. Sellin, "The Large Roman Water Mill at Barbegal (France)", History of Technology, 8th Annual Volume, 1983, pp. 91–109.
- Luigi Jacono, "La Ruota Idraulica di Venafro", L'Ingegnere, No. 12, December 1938, pp. 850–853.
- A. W. van Buren and G. P. Stevens, "The Aqua Traiana and the Mills on the Janiculum", American Academy in Rome, Memoirs 1 (1915–16), pp. 59–62 and 6 (1927), pp. 137–146.
- For years this important example has been casually alluded to and inadequately referenced by, for example; A. P. Usher, A History of Mechanical Inventions, (Harvard University Press, Revised Edition, 1970), p. 176; C. L. Sagui, "La Meunerie de Barbegal (France) et les roues hydrauliques chez les anciens et au moyen age", Isis, Vol. 38 (1947), p. 229; R. J. Forbes, op. cit. (4), p. 94. This unsatisfactory situation has now been rectified by Thorkild Schioler and Corjan Wikander, "A Roman Water-Mill in the Baths of Caracalla", Opuscula Romana, (Stockholm, 1983), XIV: 4, pp. 47–64.
- A. W. Parsons, "A Roman Water-Mill in the Athenian Agora", Hesperia, Vol. 5, 1936, pp. 70–90.
- J. G. Landels, Engineering in the Ancient World, (Chatto & Windus, London, 1978), p. 17.
- This translation is from L. A. Moritz, Grain-Mills and Flour in Classical Antiquity, (Oxford, 1958), p. 131 and is often quoted. As a translation however it is not to everyone's taste as Dr. Lewis's contribution indicates.
- This is by no means the universally held view. A. W. Parsons, op. cit. ( 41), p. 81 for example was confident that only an overshot wheel could fit the description and the same argument is fully discussed and persuasively made by Dr. Lewis in his contribution to this Paper. If it be true the important point then is that Antipater's water-wheel was not set horizontally.
- Furthermore I agree with Dr. Lewis's observation that we really are dealing here with a watermill and not an irrigation wheel, an idea which has been entertained, e.g. by Terry S. Reynolds, op. cit. (9), pp. 17 & 353.
- L. A. Moritz, op. cit. (43), p. 46.
- L. White Jnr., op. cit. (5), pp. 82–83.
- D. L. Simms, "Water-driven Saws, Ausonius, and the Authenticity of the Mosella", Technology and Culture, Volume 24, No. 4, pp. 635–643.
- The well-known renditions of these machines are due to Carra de Vaux; see A. P. Usher, op. cit. (1), pp. 162, 164.
- This information is from Dr. D. R. Hill.
- Taken from the Morgan edition of 1914; Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, (Dover, New York, 1960) translated by Morris Hicky Morgan. On the problem of the Vitruvian text see L. A. Moritz, "Vitruvius' Water-Mill, Classical Review, Vol. 70, 1956, pp. 193–196.
- On this troublesome topic see the valuable and interesting contributions from R. J. Spain and Anders Jespersen in the Correspondence.
- See the interesting Italian arrangement referred to by Mr. Jespersen in the Correspondence.
- Contrary to some opinions I do not find it so difficult to visualise ways of coupling a vertical waterwheel to an hour-glass mill. One way is shown in Carlos Fernandez Casado, Ingeniera Hidraulica Romana, (Madrid, 1983), p. 644.
- But see L. A. Moritz, op. cit. ( 43), p. 131 for a warning against.
- Bennett and Elton, op. cit. (15), Volume 2, p. 32.
- See L. White Jnr., op. cit. ( 5), p. 81 as against P. A. Rahtz, op. cit. (23), p. 3.
- Felix F. Strauss, "Mills without Wheels" in the 16th-century Alps', Technology and Culture, Volume 12, No. 1, 1971, pp. 23–42. Interestingly, and mysteriously, the picture carries the remark: "Item, this is a water mill whose wheel is lying horizontally in the water and whose shaft is vertical. It is a true mill and works without a geared wheel. A Pope in Rome invented it."
- Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, translated and annotated by Dr. D. R. Hill (Reidel, Dordrecht—Holland, 1974), pp. 76–79, 95–98, 186–189.
- S. Avitsur, "Watermills in Eretz Israel, and Their Contribution to Water Power Technology", International Symposium on Molinology, Transactions 2, 1969, pp. 389–407, and S. Avitsur, On the History of the Exploitation of Waterpower in Eretz Israel, (Tel-Aviv, 1960).
- As this paper was being revised, and in response to the pre-print, Dr. Schieler sent me a copy of his paperon the Baths of Caracalla, see Note 40 above, and not far behind was Anders Jespersen's photo-copy of the same. For their generosity and promptitude I thank them both. From this paper I derived the following reference to the Chemtou mill: F. Rakob, "Wasser als Element rtimischer Infrastruktur", DU Die Kunstzeit-schrift, 1979, Vol. 3, 66, Fig. 2.
- For these see the definitive work: Thorkild Schioler, op. cit. (29), p. 150.
- A painting from Alexandria showing two oxen driving a water-raising wheel dates from the time of Christ: see Thorkild Schieler, op. cit. (29), p. 152.
- S. Avitsur (1969), op. cit. (60), p. 399 attributes the 'animal-driven bucket chain device' to `c.3-4th cent. BC'. It would be interesting to know his evidence for such an early date.
- Derek de Solla Price, Gears from the Greeks, (Science History Publications, 1975, New York).
- Paul N. Wilson, op. cit. (22), pp. 32–33.