The Armament of Naval Ships in the Nineteenth Century

REFERENCES AND NOTES

• Dr. Oscar Parkes, British Battleships, (Seeley Service, London, 1966), P. 7.
   Google Scholar
• Ibid., pp. 477–483.
   Google Scholar
• Rhys Jenkins, "Early Gunfounding in England and Wales", T.N.S., Vol. 44 (1971–72), pp. 145–152. Rhys Jenkins, "Rise and Fall of the Sussex Iron industry", T.N.S., Vol. 1 (1920–21), pp. 16–33. Ernest Straker, Wealden Iron, (David & Charles Reprints, Newton Abbot, 1969), pp. 48–49.
   Google Scholar
• Charles Ffoulkes, The Gunfounders of England, (C.U.P., 1937), pp. 105–114. H. R. Schubert, History of the British Iron and Steel Industry, (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1957), pp. 164–165. Edmund Teesdale, The Queen's Gunstonemaker, (Lindel Organisation, Seaford) pp. 1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Ernest Straker, op. cit. (3), pp. 50–68, 142–166.
   Google Scholar
• Howard C. Tomlinson, "Wealden Gunfounding: An Analysis of its Demise", Economic History Review, Vol. XXIX, (Aug 1976), p. 398.
   Google Scholar
• Alan Birch, The Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry, (Cass, London, 1967), p. 51, n. 30.
   Google Scholar
• A. Raistrick, (ed.), The Hatchett Diary, (1967), p. 58.
   Google Scholar
• K. H. Rogers, The Newcomen Engine in the West of England, (Moonraker Press, Bradford on Avon, 1976), p. 52.
   Google Scholar
• Alan Birch, op. cit. (7), p. 152, 363.
   Google Scholar
• Col. H. C. B. Rogers, A History of Artillery, (Citadel Press, Secaucus, N.J., 1975), pp. 93–101, (originally published in the U.K. as Artillery through the Ages, (Seeley Service, London, 1971).
   Google Scholar
• F. L. Robertson, The Evolution of Naval Armament, (Constable, London, 1921), pp. 200–209.
   Google Scholar
• Col. H. C. B. Rogers, op. cit. (11), p. 104.
   Google Scholar
• Dictionary of National Biography, Sir William George Armstrong.
   Google Scholar
• Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Joseph Whitworth.
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), pp. 34–38.
   Google Scholar
• Contemporary Reports from: Army and Navy Gazette, The Engineer, The Illustrated London News, The Mechanics Magazine, The Times. Basil Collier, Arms and the Man, (Hamilton, London, 1980), pp. 39–47.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, op. cit. (17), pp. 48–54.
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), p. 38.
   Google Scholar
• Illustrated London News, 1872.
   Google Scholar
• Brig. O. F. G. Hogg, "The Development of Engineering at the Royal Arsenal", T.N.S., Vol. 32 (1959–60), pp. 29–42, p. 35.
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), pp. 287–288.
   Google Scholar
• Alan Birch, op. cit. (7), pp. 315–330. (There are numerous accounts of the Bessemer saga but this is concise, considered reliable and convenient if already being consulted).
   Google Scholar
• Alan Birch, op. cit. (7), pp. 371–378. (This again is a convenient, concise reminder of some of the background to the Siemens Open-Hearth process).
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), p. 324.
   Google Scholar
• Col. H. C. B. Rogers, op. cit. (11), p. 96.
   Google Scholar
• R. C. Trebilcock, The Vickers Brothers, (Europa Press, London, 1977), p. 54.
   Google Scholar
• Trebilcock, op. cit. (27), p. 119.
   Google Scholar
• Trebilcock, op. cit. (27), p. 69.
   Google Scholar
• The Engineer, Engineering, 1891.
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), pp. 380–387.
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), pp. 163, 203, 325–327, 377. Collier, op. cit. (17), p. 53.
   Google Scholar
• Torpedoes were invented in 1866 by Robert Whitehead, (Collier, op. cit. (17), p. 53) living in Fiume in Austria-Hungary, offered first to the British Government, but rejected. They were 14 inch diameter, with a speed of 7 knots and a nominal range of 1,000 yards over an unreliable course. By the 1890s the British were then willing to buy, provided that Whitehead set up a factory in Britain (Weymouth). It became an effective weapon after 1907 (Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1) p. 506) with air heaters that increased the speed to 45 knots over a range of up to 7,000 yards and the diameter rose to 18 in and then 21 in before 1914.
   Google Scholar
• Torpedo boats were first designed to take slow-running, short-range, 14 inch torpedoes close to the target, (Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (I), pp. 325–327, 377, 460 & 593). In 1884 these boats were still small and under 100 ft in length but were rapidly growing in size and speed. By 1892 they were 180 feet in length, 18 ft beam, and attacked at 27 knots using 4,000 HP. They were originally intended to destroy torpedo boats but succeeded to the role of torpedo boat. With the arrival of the K Class, they were armed with four 21 inch tubes and three 4 in guns, becoming vessels to be reckoned with in their size.
   Google Scholar
• Submarines had passed from the experimental stage by 1907. Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), p. 498–593, and Collier, op. cit. (17), pp. 72–74, give useful background but specialist books are plentiful. By 1911–12 they were dependable sea boats and in 1915, B9 made the passage to the Mediterranean under her own power and penetrated the defences of the Dardanelles. The Germans followed the British example from 1911–12; however, using zig-zagging and destroyer screens for defence was not visualised until later in World War I.
   Google Scholar
• Hood was the height of development in British battleships when it was laid down in 1916 as one of four intended to match the German programme. After Jutland their building ceased and the British only kept Hood on the stocks but with lower priority, other forms of armament being strategically more important, (Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (I), p. 644–649, 678). Its size of 41,000 tons, horsepower of 144,000, and armour up to 15 inches thick weighing 13,000 tons, a third of the total weight, made it formidable in its period, but airpower was still in its infancy.
   Google Scholar
• Seaplanes were only tentatively employed on trials before 1914 for observation. The bombs available at that time were often dropped by hand and their main function was personnel attack for anti-morale purposes. The development of the aeroplane must be measured by the first crossing of the Channel by Bleriot, 25 July 1909. The interim period is seen in Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), p. 593, Collier, op. cit. (17), pp. 74–78. The war of 1914–1918 led to the expansion in aircraft technology at tremendous rates and aircraft at the end of that time became a vital force in a very short period, changing the strategy of fighting ships in defence as well as offence.
   Google Scholar
• The submarine became a critical factor in strategy during the First World War as much for its impact on the civilian population as for its effect on capital ships. Arthur J. Marder, The Anatomy of British Sea Power, (1940), pointed out that as early as 1891, 80% of bread corn was imported, 50% of meat and 100% of tea, sugar coffee, rice, also a large part of the fruit and vegetables. Merchant ships were extremely vulnerable, even after the setting up of convoys and the development of anti-submarine technology, as the civilians suffered from severe shortages, even after the advent of rationing. The submarine was a more effective weapon used this way than attacking warships provided with improving defences. It diverted considerable numbers of naval ships and personnel to protect strategic material and food shipping.
   Google Scholar
• The Illustrated London News, 14 September 1861. Engineering, Vol. 4 (1867), p. 336. By 1867, the site covered 21 acres. Sir Alan Grant, Steel and Ships, (Michael Joseph, London, 1950). J. R. Hume and M. S. Moss, Beardmore, (Heinemann, London, 1979), pp. 23–31.
   Google Scholar
• Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1). The changes in armour thicknesses and types are dealt with fully and chronologically throughout this book.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, Hume and Moss, Oscar Parkes and Trebilcock give a general outline of the development of armour.
   Google Scholar
• Capt. J. Wells, verbal contribution (see Discussion) on failure to hold sea trials.
   Google Scholar
• F. L. Robertson, op. cit. (12), p. 206. Oscar Parkes, op. cit. (1), p. 34–38.
   Google Scholar
• Col. H. C. B. Rogers, op. cit. (11), p. 96–97.
   Google Scholar