Steam Engine Theory in the 19th Century: from Duty to Thermal Efficiency; from Parkes to Sankey

NOTES AND REFERENCES

• The measure of duty evolved pan i passu with the Newcomen engine, from 1712 onward. For an account of the evolution of this and related concepts see the author's 'Some Factors in thc Early Development on the Concepts of Power, Work and Energy', British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 3, (1967), pp. 209–224.
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• J. Parkes, Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol 1 (1839–1840), 13 Feb, 1838, 23 April, 1839.
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• This was hardly correct. Charles Combes, in his paper: `Mémoire sur l'Exploitation des Mines des Comtes de Cornwall et de Devon',Anna/es des Mines, vol. 5, (1834), pp. 109, 345, 593, had given a umber of reasons to account for the superior performances of Cornish engines. Among these were the use of large pipes, quick acting valves, the steam jacket with lagging, control of expansion to match the load and, not least, the superior competence of the Cornish engineers.
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• Parkes, op.cit (2), 21 Feb, 1840.
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• R. L. Hills, Power from steam, (Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 162. et seq.
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• Comptes Rendus, vol. 16, (1843), p. 649; ibid, vol. 17, (1843), p. 465.
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• In 1828 Samuel Grose had greatly increased the performance of the Wheal Towan engine by lagging the pipes and valves. This was recorded in Joel Lean's Monthly Engine Reporter.
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• D. K. Clark, Railway machinery, vol. 1(1855), pp. 66, 77 et seq.
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• Erasmus Darwin had, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1788, explained the persistence of the snowfields and glaciers of the equatorial Andes by pointing out that warm winds, blowing up the sides of the mountains, would be cooled by expansion; cold winds, blowing down the mountains, would be heated by compression.
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• Keith Hutchison, 'W. J. M. Rankine and the Rise of Thermodynamics', British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 15 (1981), pp 1–26. See also the important papers by David Channell from 'Science, Technology and Entropy', a discussion paper at the Edinburgh International Congress on the History of Science (1977) to 'Scottish Men of Science'W. J. M. Rankine', (Scotland's Cultural Heritage, Edinburgh, 1986)
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• Clausius's stated the two laws very simply as, (I), the energy of the universe is constant. (II), the entropy tends always to a maximum.
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• The books in question were J. A. Ewing, The steam-engine (first edition, 1894), T. Preston, The theory of heat (first edition 1894) and J. Perry, The steam-engine (1900)
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• Cotterill's books were: Notes on the theory of the steam-engine, (1871); The steam-engine considered as a heat engine (1878); The steam-engine considered as a thermodynamic machine (1890 and 1896).
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• G. Zeuner, Griindzuge der mechanischen weirme theorie (Leipzig, 1862). The book was translated into French and published as Théorie mécanique de la chaleur (Paris, 1869). See the 'Explanation of propositions relative to cyclic operations by means of analogous known theories in mechanics', pp. 65 et seq.
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• Sir J. A. Ewing, The mechanical production of cold, 2nd ed. (C.U.P., 1919) p. 28. The analogy, although at first sight plausible, is false. In thermodynamics, using Clausius's notation, a change in entropy, dS, is equal to dQ/T only when the change is reversible; for irreversible changes, in the real world, dS is always greater than dQ/T. In Zeuner's (and Cotterill's) mechanics the changes are reversible.
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• F. Massieu. 'Sur les Fonctions Caractéristiques des Diverses Fluides', Comptes Rendus, (1869), pp. 158–862, 1057–1061. Massieu gave a fuller account of his theory in Mémoires des Savants Etrangers, vol. 22, (1876) and in Journal de Physique, vol. 6, (1877).
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• D. K. Clark, The steam-engine: A treatise on steam-engines and boilers, 2 vols, (1889–90). See, in particular, the long discussion of the Mulhouse group in volume 1.
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• Among those at Zurich at different times were Clausius, Zeuner, Reuleaux and Linde.
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• Th. Belpaire, 'Note sur la Seconde Principe de la Thermodynamique', Bulletin, Académie Royale des Sciences (Bruxelles), vol. 34, (1872), pp. 509–526.
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• In a Watt (p.v.) indicator diagram the area merely gives the work done.
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• G. J. Hollister-Short, 'The Introduction of the Newcomen Engine into Europe', Transactions of the Newcomen Society, vol. 48, (1976–77), pp. 11–24.
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• K. Baedeker, Belgium and Holland, (Leipzig, 1901), p. 62, P. 229. Baedeker is, of course an impeccable source of information.
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• George Watkins, The textile mill engine, vol. 1, (David & Charles: Newton Abbot 1970).
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• For Linde's work on refrigeration and the theta-phi diagram, see Schroeter's contribution to discussion following Willans, Steam-Engine Trials, M.P.I.C.E., vol. 114, (1893); also, J. A. Ewing, op. cit (14).
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• B. Donkin & W. B. Farey, Engineering (17 July, 1868), p.58; (21 May, 1869), p.334; see also the Editorial, p. 341.
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• J. G. Mair, 'The Independent Testing of Steam-Engines and the Measurement of Heat Used', M.P.I.C.E., vol. 70, (1882), p. 313; 'Results of Some Independent Engine Tests', ibid, vol. 79, (1884), p. 323.
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• B. F. Isherwood was one of many American engineers who contributed much to the development of the steam-engine in the second half of the 19th century. Towards the end of the century the works of Professors Peabody and Thurston were particularly notable.
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• Personal communications from M. Duffy and J. O. Marsh. The importance of electricty generation in the invention and development of the steam turbine needs no further comment.
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• Peter Willans died in a traffic accident when he was thrown from his dog-cart.
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• Willans' first high-speed engine was designed for a launch, R. L. Hills, op cit, (4), p. 215.
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• Most early British power-stations used Willans engines. R. L. Hills, op cit. (4), p. 216 and passim.
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• Henry Philias Riall Sankey, C.B., C.B.E, son of General W. Sankey, was born at Nenagh, in County Tipperary, Ireland, in 1853. As the Willans firm grew, Sankey designed a new plant'the Victoria Works, Rugby. In 1904 he resigned to become a consultant. He also became a director of a number of companies, including the Marconi WIT Company and Marconi International Marine Communications Company. Sankey was very active in a wide range of technologies. He died in 1925.
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• This can hardly be disputed. When, in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the British Government decided that schools should teach science the only men qualified to act as examination supervisors and inspectors were officers of the Royal Engineers. See D.S. L. Cardwell, The organisation of science in England, (Heinemann: London 2nd ed reprint 1980), p. 116.
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• H. R. Sankey, 'On Some Experiments in Electrotyping with a Dynamo Electric Machine Carried Out at the Ordnance Survey Department, Southampton', Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Elec-tricians, vol. 14, (1885), pp. 128–55.
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• The Smee Cell consisted of two zinc plates separated by a platinum, or platinum-silver, plate in dilute suphuric acid in a relatively large vessel; the design minimised polarisation of the plates. Alfred Smee, the inventor, lived, surprisingly, in the Bank of England.
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• R Willans, M.P.I.C.E., vol. 93, (1888), pp. 128–243 and ibid, vol. 96, (1889), p. 230 et seq.
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• Obituary of H. R. Sankey, M.P.I.C.E., vol. 221, (1926), p. 271.
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• Carl von Linde was using the entropy temperature diagram in connection with his work on refrigeration as early as 1875.
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• See the obituary notice of J. MacFarlane Gray in Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects, vol. 50, (1908), p. 319; Engineering (1908), p. 89. See also, D. S. L. Cardwell and R. L. Hills, 'Thermodynamics and Practical Engineering in the Nineteenth Century', History of Technology, vol. v, (1976), pp. 1–20. It is said that Gray's appointment as Chief Examiner to the Board of Trade debarred him from publishing papers.
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• J. MacFarlane Gray, 'The Theoretical Duty of Heat in the Steam Engine', Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects, vol. 26, (1885), pp. 154–156. Although the entropy temperature diagram is clearly illustrated, the argument in the paper is obscure and the information given is inadequate. He stated that the paper was based on his 'ether pressure theory of thermodynamics' which was not published until four years later (`On the Ether Pressure Theory of Thermodynamics Applied to Steam', Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, (1889), pp. 379–398 and in T.I.N.A.) Over this period the 'universal ether' was commonly believed to account for virtually all physical phenomena; sixteen years later Einstein put paid to the ether. I propose to look further into the history of the entropy temperature diagram and its acceptance by engineers.
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• Thurston published a number of important papers in the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. See, for example, R. H. Thurston, 'Authorities on the Steam Jacket: Facts and Current Opinions', M.P.I.C.E., vol. 104 (1890), p. 225 et seq (abstracted from TA.S.M.E.) See also P. Willans, 'Steam-Engine Trials', M.P.I.C.E., vol. 114 (1893) p 2 et seq (this posthumous paper was revised by M. Robinson and H. R. Sankey). H. R. Sankey, 'The Thermal Efficiency of Steam Engines', M.P.I.C.E., vol. 125 (1896), pp. 182–242. T. English, 'Experiments on the Distribution of Heat in a Stationary Steam-Engine', P.I.Mech.E. (1887), pp. 478–502.
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• 'The Thermal Efficiency of Steam-Engines', WI. C.E ., vol. 134 (1898), pp. 278–312.
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• Boulvin's article, 'On Entropy and Entropy Diagrams' was printed in Engineering (July, 1896).
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• Comment by Dr Duffy at the Oxford conference (q.v.)
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• Mark Robinson in Willans (1893) op cit., (32).
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• Perry, op cit, (9).
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