A mixed-methods systematic review of the prevalence, reasons, associated harms and risk-reduction interventions of over-the-counter (OTC) medicines misuse, abuse and dependence in adults

References

• Bowman C, Family H, Agius-Muscat H, Cordina M, Sutton J. Consumer internet purchasing of medicines using a population sample: a mixed methodology approach. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2019.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2019.09.056.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nomura K, Kitagawa Y, Yuda Y, Takano-Ohmuro H. Medicine reclassification processes and regulations for proper use of over-the-counter self-care medicines in Japan. Risk Manag Healthc Policy. 2016;9:173–183.https://doi.org/10.2147/RMHP.S98099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fielding S, Porteous T, Ferguson J, Maskrey V, Blyth A, Paudyal V, et al. Estimating the burden of minor ailment consultations in general practices and emergency departments through retrospective review of routine data in North East Scotland. Fam Pract. 2015;32(2):165–172.https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmv003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper RJ. Over-the-counter medicine abuse–a review of the literature. J Subst Use. 2013;18(2):82–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albsoul-Younes A, Wazaify M, Yousef A-M, Tahaineh L. Abuse and misuse of prescription and nonprescription drugs sold in community pharmacies in Jordan. Subst Use Misuse. 2010;45(9):1319–1329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming GF, McElnay JC, Hughes CM. Development of a community pharmacy-based model to identify and treat OTC drug abuse/misuse: a pilot study. Pharm World Sci. 2004;26(5):282–288.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wazaify M, Shields E, Hughes CM, McElnay JC. Societal perspectives on over-the-counter (OTC) medicines. Fam Pract. 2005;22(2):170–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Lexicon of alcohol and drug terms Geneva. 1994. https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/en/. Accessed 05 May 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen S, Van Hout MC. Over-the-counter codeine—from therapeutic use to dependence, and the grey areas in between. In: Non-medical and illicit use of psychoactive drugs. Springer, Cham; 2015. p. 59–75.
   Google Scholar
• Levine DA. ‘Pharming’: the abuse of prescription and over-the-counter drugs in teens. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2007;19(3):270–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAvoy BR, Dobbin MD, Tobin CL. Over-the-counter codeine analgesic misuse and harm: characteristics of cases in Australia and New Zealand. N Z Med J. 2011;124(1346):29–33.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frei MY, Nielsen S, Dobbin MDH, Tobin CL. Serious morbidity associated with misuse of over-the-counter codeine–ibuprofen analgesics: a series of 27 cases. Med J Aust. 2010;193(5):294–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ. 2009;339:b2535.
   Google Scholar
• Joanna Briggs Institute. Critical appraisal tools. 2017. https://joannabriggs.org/ebp/critical_appraisal_tools. Accessed 12 Jun 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Ma L-L, Wang Y-Y, Yang Z-H, Huang D, Weng H, Zeng X-T. Methodological quality (risk of bias) assessment tools for primary and secondary medical studies: what are they and which is better? Mil Med Res. 2020;7(1):7.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-00238-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Eikenhorst L, Salema N-E, Anderson C. A systematic review in select countries of the role of the pharmacist in consultations and sales of non-prescription medicines in community pharmacy. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2017;13(1):17–38.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2016.02.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lizarondo L, Stern C, Carrier J, Godfrey C, Rieger K, Salmond S et al. Chapter 8: Mixed methods systematic reviews. Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewer’s Manual The Joanna Briggs Institute. 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Roussin A, Bouyssi A, Pouche L, Pourcel L, Lapeyre-Mestre M. Misuse and dependence on non-prescription codeine analgesics or sedative H1 antihistamines by adults: a cross-sectional investigation in France. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(10):e76499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fingleton NA, Watson MC, Duncan EM, Matheson C. Non-prescription medicine misuse, abuse and dependence: a cross-sectional survey of the UK general population. J Public Health. 2016;38(4):722–730.https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdv204.
   Google Scholar
• Chan WL, Wood DM, Dargan PI. Misuse of prescription and over-the-counter medicines in South London nightclubs. J Subs Use. 2016;21(5):495–500.https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2015.1068388.
   Google Scholar
• Hill D, McCabe A, Paterson K, Stuart J, Campbell D. Misuse of over the counter medicines in community pharmacies in Scotland. J Subst Use. 2018;23(1):7–13.https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2017.1316783.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehuys E, Paemeleire K, Van Hees T, Christiaens T, Van Bortel LM, Van Tongelen I, et al. Self-medication of regular headache: a community pharmacy-based survey. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19(8):1093–1099.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2012.03681.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf MS, King J, Jacobson K, Di Francesco L, Bailey SC, Mullen R, et al. Risk of unintentional overdose with non-prescription acetaminophen products. JGIM J Gen Intern Med. 2012;27(12):1587–1593.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-012-2096-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mhatre SK, Sansgiry SS. Assessing a conceptual model of over-the-counter medication misuse, adverse drug events and health-related quality of life in an elderly population. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2016;16(1):103–110.https://doi.org/10.1111/ggi.12443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone JA, Lester CA, Aboneh EA, Phelan CH, Welch LL, Chui MA. A preliminary examination of over-the-counter medication misuse rates in older adults. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2017;13(1):187–192.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2016.01.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eickhoff C, Hammerlein A, Griese N, Schulz M. Nature and frequency of drug-related problems in self-medication (over-the-counter drugs) in daily community pharmacy practice in Germany. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2012;21(3):254–260.https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.2241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cairns R, Brown JA, Buckley NA. The impact of codeine re-scheduling on misuse: a retrospective review of calls to Australia’s largest poisons centre. Addiction. 2016;111(10):1848–1853.https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy C, Duggan E, Bennett K, Williams DJ. Rates of reported codeine-related poisonings and codeine prescribing following new national guidance in Ireland. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2019;28(1):106–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brass EP, Burnham RI, Reynolds KM. Poison center exposures due to therapeutic misuse of nonprescription acetaminophen-containing combination products in the United States 2007–2016. Clin Toxicol. 2018.https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1517879.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karami S, Major JM, Calderon S, McAninch JK. Trends in dextromethorphan cough and cold products: 2000–2015 National Poison Data System intentional abuse exposure calls. Clin Toxicol. 2018;56(7):656–663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schifano F, Chiappini S. Is there such a thing as a “lope” dope? Analysis of loperamide-related European Medicines Agency (EMA) pharmacovigilance database reports. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(10):e0204443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee VR, Vera A, Alexander A, Ruck B, Nelson LS, Wax P, et al. Loperamide misuse to avoid opioid withdrawal and to achieve a euphoric effect: high doses and high risk. Clin Toxicol. 2018.https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1510128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weidmann AE, Cunningham S, Gray G, Hansford D, McLay J, Broom J, et al. Over-the-counter orlistat: early experiences, views and attitudes of community pharmacists in Great Britain. Int J Clin Pharm. 2011;33(4):627–633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett R, Costa D. An evaluation of community pharmacist perception of the misuse and abuse of over-the-counter co-codamol in Cornwell and Devon, UK: a cross-sectional survey. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl. 2018;20(5):13–17
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wazaify M, Abood E, Tahaineh L, Albsoul-Younes A. Jordanian community pharmacists’ experience regarding prescription and nonprescription drug abuse and misuse in Jordan—an update. J Subst Use. 2017;22(5):463–468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abood EA, Wazaify M. Abuse and misuse of prescription and nonprescription drugs from community pharmacies in Aden City—Yemen. Subst Use Misuse. 2016;51(7):942–947.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojta-Kempa M, Krzyzanowski DM. Correlates of abusing and misusing over-the-counter pain relievers among adult population of Wroclaw (Poland). Adv Clin Exp Med. 2016;25(2):349–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen S, Cameron J, Pahoki S. Opportunities and challenges: over-the-counter codeine supply from the codeine consumer’s perspective. Int J Pharm Pract. 2013;21(3):161–168.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agyapong V, Singh K, Savage M, Thekiso T, Finn M, Farren C, et al. Use of codeine-containing medicines by Irish psychiatric inpatients before and after regulatory limitations on their supply. Ir J Psychol Med. 2013;30(1):7–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Hout MC, Rich E, Dada S, Bergin M. “Codeine is my helper”: misuse of and dependence on codeine-containing medicines in South Africa. Qual Health Res. 2017;27(3):341–350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimergard A, Foley M, Davey Z, Dunne J, Drummond C, Deluca P. Codeine use, dependence and help-seeking behaviour in the UK and Ireland: an online cross-sectional survey. QJM. 2017;110(9):559–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koziarska-Rosciszewska M, Piatek A, Kobza-Sindlewska K, Krakowiak M, Winnicka R, Krakowiak A. Dextromethorphan recreational use and poisoning—the social and psychological background. Fam Med Primary Care Rev. 2018;20(2):139–143.
   Google Scholar
• Pringle G, McDonald MP, Gabriel KI. Patterns and perceptions of dextromethorphan use in adult members of an online dextromethorphan community. J Psychoact Drugs. 2015;47(4):267–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abraham O, Schleiden L, Albert S, Albert SM. Over-the-counter medications containing diphenhydramine and doxylamine used by older adults to improve sleep. Int J Clin Pharm. 2017;39(4):808–817.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11096-017-0467-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang A, Tang W, Liang H, Chan F, Mak S, Ungvari G. Clinical characteristics of cough mixture abusers referred to three substance abuse clinics in Hong Kong: a retrospective study. East Asian Arch Psychiatry. 2012;22(4):154–159.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mullen RJ, Curtis LM, O’Conor R, Serper M, McCarthy D, Bailey SC, et al. Visual acuity, literacy, and unintentional misuse of nonprescription medications. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2018;75(9):E213–E220.https://doi.org/10.2146/ajhp170303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tesfamariam S, Anand IS, Kaleab G, Berhane S, Woldai B, Habte E, et al. Self-medication with over the counter drugs, prevalence of risky practice and its associated factors in pharmacy outlets of Asmara, Eritrea. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):159.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolf MS, King J, Jacobson K, Di Francesco L, Bailey SC, Mullen R, et al. Risk of unintentional overdose with non-prescription acetaminophen products. J Gen Intern Med. 2012;27(12):1587–1593.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins RE, Dobbin M, Pilgrim JL. Unintentional mortality associated with paracetamol and codeine preparations, with and without doxylamine, in Australia. Forensic Sci Int. 2018;282:122–126.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.11.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper RJ. ‘I can’t be an addict. I am.’ Over-the-counter medicine abuse: a qualitative study. BMJ Open. 2013;3(6):002913.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Hout MC, Horan A, Santlal K, Rich E, Bergin M. “Codeine is my companion”: misuse and dependence on codeine containing medicines in Ireland. Ir J Psychol Med. 2018;35(4):275–288.https://doi.org/10.1017/ipm.2015.60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mill D, Johnson JL, Cock V, Monaghan E, Hotham ED. Counting the cost of over-the-counter codeine containing analgesic misuse: a retrospective review of hospital admissions over a 5 year period. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2018;37(2):247–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinyor M, Howlett A, Cheung AH, Schaffer A. Substances used in completed suicide by overdose in Toronto: an observational study of coroner’s data. Can J Psychiatry. 2012;57(3):184–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright J, Bond C, Robertson HD, Matheson C. Changes in over-the-counter drug misuse over 20 years: perceptions from Scottish pharmacists. J Public Health. 2016;38(4):793–799.https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdv169.
   Google Scholar
• Monson KE, Freeman PR, Goodin AJ, Talbert J, Blumenschein K. Kentucky pharmacists’ opinions of the potential reclassification of pseudoephedrine as a legend drug. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2014;54(4):397–405.https://doi.org/10.1331/JAPhA.2014.13177.
   Google Scholar
• Foley M, Carney T, Rich E, Parry C, Van Hout MC, Deluca P. Medical professionals’ perspectives on prescribed and over-the-counter medicines containing codeine: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2016;6(7):e011725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foley M, Carney T, Harris R, Fitzpatrick E, Rapca-Veillet A, Van Hout MC. Medicines containing codeine: perspectives of medical professionals in the Republic of Ireland. Ir J Med Sci. 2017;186(3):555–563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parry CDH, Rich E, Van Hout MC, Deluca P. Codeine misuse and dependence in South Africa: perspectives of addiction treatment providers. S Afr Med J Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif Vir Geneeskunde. 2017;107(5):451–456.https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.2017.v107i5.12242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman JJ, Schuster CR, DuPont RL. Reducing the abuse potential of controlled substances. Pharm Med. 2010;24(1):21–36.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03256795.
   Google Scholar
• Cone EJ. Ephemeral profiles of prescription drug and formulation tampering: evolving pseudoscience on the Internet. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;83(SUPPL. 1):S31–S39.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.11.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamed E, Moe D. Development of tamper deterrent formulations: state of the pharmaceutical industry. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2010;3(3):139–146.https://doi.org/10.2174/1874473711003030139.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Katz N, Dart RC, Bailey E, Trudeau J, Osgood E, Paillard F. Tampering with prescription opioids: nature and extent of the problem, health consequences, and solutions. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011;37(4):205–217.https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2011.569623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elander J, Duarte J, Maratos FA, Gilbert P. Predictors of painkiller dependence among people with pain in the general population. Pain Med. 2014;15(4):613–624.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al Kubaisi KA, SteCroix MD, Vinson D, Hassan MN, Baig MR, Sharif SL, et al. What drives intentional overdose with non-prescription drugs? A cross-sectional study. Ann Pharm Francaises. 2018.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharma.2018.03.008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar