A Nutrient/Toxin Interaction Theory of the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Chronic Pain-Fatigue Syndromes

References

• Bell DS. The Doctor's Guide to Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Understanding, Treating, and Living with CFIDS. New York: Addison-Wesley; 1995:201–202.
   Google Scholar
• Martyn JA, White DA, Gronert GA, et al. Up- and Down-Regulation of Skele-tal Muscle Acetylcholine Receptors. Effects on Neuromuscular Blockers. Anesthe-siology. May 1992;76(5):822–843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIvor ME. Acute Fluoride Toxicity: Pathophysiology and Management. Drug Saf 1990;5(2):79–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang HK, Bullman TA. Mortality Among U.S. Veterans of the Persian Gulf War. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1498–1504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franke J. Ossifications and Calcifications of Muscle and Tendon Insertions in Human Industrial Fluorosis. In: Tsunoda H, Yu M-H eds. Fluoride Research 1985. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1986:335–339. Studies in Environmental Science; vol. 27.
   Google Scholar
• Anand JK, Roberts JT. Chronic Fluoride Poisoning in Man: A Review of the Literature in English (1946-1989) and Indications for Research. Biomed Pharma-cother. 1990;44:417–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krishnamachari, KAVR. Skeletal Fluorosis in Humans: A Review of Recent Progress in the Understanding of the Disease. Prog Food Nutr Sci. 1986;10:279–314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sprott H, Muller A, Heine H. Collagen Crosslinks in Fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. August 1997;40(8):1450–1454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma YD. Effect of Sodium Fluoride on Collagen Cross-Link Precursors. Toxicol Lett. 1982:10(1):97–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris ME. Brain and CSF Magnesium Concentrations During Magnesium Deficit in Animals and Humans: Neurological Symptoms. Magnes Res. 1992;5(4): 303–313.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dure-Smith BA, Farley SM, Linkhart SG, et al. Calcium Deficiency in Fluo-ride-Treated Osteoporotic Patients Despite Calcium Supplementation. J Clin Endo-crinol Metab. January 1996;81(1):269–275.
   Google Scholar
• Kleerekoper M, Peterson E, Nelson DA. A Randomized Trial of Sodium Fluo-ride as a Treatment for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 1991;1:155–162.
   Google Scholar
• Riggs BL, Hodgson SF, O'Fallon WM. Effect of Fluoride Treatment on the Fracture Rate in Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 1990; 322:802–809.
   Google Scholar
• Abraham GE, Grewal H. A Total Dietary Program Emphasizing Magnesium Instead of Calcium. Effect on the Mineral Density of Calcaneous Bone in Postmeno-pausal Women on Hormonal Therapy. J Reprod Med. 1990;35(5):503–507.
   Google Scholar
• Susheela AK, Kharb P. Aortic Calcification in Chronic Fluoride Poisoning: Biochemical and Electronmicroscopic Evidence. Exp Mol PathoL 1990;53:72–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman M. Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Fibromyalgia. Clin J Pain. 1991;7\(suppl 1):58–515.
   Google Scholar
• Elert JE, Rantapaa-Dahlqvist SB, Henriksson-Larsen K, et al. Muscle Perfor-mance, Electromyography and Fibre Type Composition in Fibromyalgia and Work-Related Myalgia. Scand J RheumatoL 1992;21(1):28–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett RM, Cook DM, Clark SR, et al. Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Axis Dysfunction in Patients with Fibromyalgia. J RheumatoL 1997;24(7):1384–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neeck G, Riedel W. Neuromediator and Hormonal Perturbations in Fibromy-algia Syndrome: Results of Chronic Stress? Baillieres Clin RheumatoL November 1994;8(4):763–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crofford LJ, Demitrack MA. Evidence that Abnormalities of Central Neuro-hormonal Systems Are Key to Understanding Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1996;22(2):267–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaul RD, Susheela AK. The Muscle. In: The Symposium on the Non-Skeletal Phase of Chronic Fluorosis. Fluoride. 1976;9(1):9–18.
   Google Scholar
• Simms RW. Is There Muscle Pathology in Fibromyalgia Syndrome? Rheum Dis Clin North Am. May 1996;22(2):245–266.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas J, Thomas E, Tomb E. Serum and Erythrocyte Magnesium Con-centrations and Migraine. Magnes Res. June 1992:5(2):127–130.
   Google Scholar
• Mauskop A, Altura BM. Role of Magnesium in the Pathogenesis and Treat-ment of Migraines. Clin Neurosci. 1998;5(1):24–27.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grimbergen GW. A Double-Blind Test for Determination of Intolerance to Fluoridated Water (preliminary report). Fluoride. 1974;7:146–152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standaert FG. Pharmacology of the Neuromuscular Junction. In: Brumback RA, Gerst JAV eds. The Neuromuscular Junction. New York: Futura Publishing Co.;1984:121–294.
   Google Scholar
• Dasarathy S, Das TK, Gupta IP, et al. Gastroduodenal Manifestations in Pa-tients with Skeletal Fluorosis. J GastroenteroL June 1996;31(3):333–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller P, Schmid K, Warnecke G., et al. Sodium Fluoride-Induced Gastric Mucosal Lesions: Comparison with Sodium Monofluorophosphate. Z GastroenteroL April 1992;30(4):252–254.
   Google Scholar
• Sivri A, Cindas A, Dincer F, et al. Bowel Dysfunction and Irritable Bowel Syndrome in Fibromyalgia Patients. Clin Rheumatol. May 1996;15(3):283–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattson MP. Advances Fuel Alzheimer 's Conundrum. Nat Genet. November 1997;17:254–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Depoortere H, Francon D, Llopis J. Effects of a Magnesium-Deficient Diet on Sleep Organization in Rats. Neuropsychobiology. 1993;27(4):237–245.
   Google Scholar
• Karczmar AG. Brief Presentation of the Story and Present Status of Studies of the Vertebrate Cholinergic System. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1993;9(3):181–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullenix PJ, Denbesten PK, Schunior A., et al. Neurotoxicity of Sodium Fluoride in Rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 1995;17(2):169–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spittle B. Psychopharmacology of Fluoride: A Review. Int Clin Psychophar-macol. 1994;9:79–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demitrack MA. Neuroendocrine Correlates of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Brief Review. J Psychiatr Res. 1997;31(1):69–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell IJ, Vaeroy H, Javors M, et al. Cerebrospinal Fluid Biogenic Amine Metabolites in Fibromyalgia/Fibrositis Syndrome and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Arthri-tis Rheum. May 1992;35(5):550–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman A, Kaufer D, Shemer J, et al. Pyridostigmine Brain Penetration Un-der Stress Enhances Neuronal Excitability and Induces Early Immediate Transcrip-tional Response. Nat Med. December 1996;2(12):1382–1385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen BS, Magarinos AM. Stress Effects on Morphology and Function of the Hippocampus. Ann N Y Acad Sci. June 21 1997;821:271–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janowsky DS, Overstreet DH, Numberger JI Jr. Is Cholinergic Sensitivity a Genetic Marker for the Affective Disorders? Am J Med Genet. 1994;54:335–344.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Galland L. Magnesium, Stress and Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Magnes Trace Elem. 1991;10(2-4):287–301.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moldofsky H. Sleep, Neuroimmune and Neuroendocrine Functions in Fibro-myalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Adv Neuroimmunol. 1995;5:39–56.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Branco J, Atalaia A, Paiva T. Sleep Cycles and Alpha-Delta Sleep in Fibromy-algia Syndrome. J Rheumatol. June 1994;21(6):1113–1117.
   Google Scholar
• de Lecea L, Criado JR, Prospero-Garcia O, et al. A Cortical Neuropeptide with Neuronal Depressant and Sleep-Modulating Properties. Nature. May 16 1996; 381:242–245.
   Google Scholar
• Jones BE. The Organization of Central Cholinergic Systems and Their Func-tional Importance in Sleep-Waking States. Prog Brain Res. 1993;98:61–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Lecea L, del Rio JA, Criado JR, et al. Cortistatin Is Expressed in a Distinct Subset of Cortical Intemeurons. J Neurosci. August 1 1997;17(15):5868–5880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams JA, Comisarow J, Day J, et al. State-Dependent Release of Acetyl-choline in Rat Thalamus Measured by in vivo Microdialysis. J Neurosci. September 1994;14(9):5236–5242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weglicki WB, Dickens BF, Wagner TL, et al. Immunoregulation by Neuro-peptides in Magnesium Deficiency: Ex vivo Effect of Enhanced Substance P Produc-tion on Circulating T Lymphocytes from Magnesium-Deficient Mice. Magnes Res. 1996;9:3–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russell IJ, Orr MD, Littman B, et al. Elevated Cerebrospinal Fluid Levels of Substance P in Patients with the Fibromyalgia Syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. Novem-ber 1994;37(11):1593–1601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurantsin-Mills J, Cassidy MM, Stafford RE, et al. Marked Alterations in Cir-culating Inflammatory Cells During Cardiomyopathy Development in a Magnesium-Deficient Rat Model. Br . I Nutr. November 1997;78(5):845–855.
   Google Scholar
• Weglicki WB, Phillips TM. Pathobiology of Magnesium Deficiency: A Cyto-kine/Neurogenic Inflammation Hypothesis. Am .1 Physiol. September 1992;263(3 pt 2): R734–R737.
   Google Scholar
• Eisinger J, Zakarian H, Pouly E, et al. Protein Peroxidation, Magnesium Defi-ciency and Fibromyalgia. Magnes Res. 1996;9(4):313–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weglicki WB, Mak IT, Kramer JH, et al. Role of Free Radicals and Substance P in Magnesium Deficiency. Cardiovasc Res. 1996;31:677–682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galland L. Magnesium and Immune Function: An Overview. Magnesium. 1988;7:290–299.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Karlsson H, Nassberger L. In vitro Metabolic Inhibition of the Human Lym-phocyte: Influence on the Expression of Interleukin-2 Receptors. Immunol Cell Biol. October 1992;70(5):309–313.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Domingo E. RNA Virus Evolution, Population Dynamics, and Nutritional Status. Biol Trace Elem Res. January 1997;56(1):23–30.
   Google Scholar
• Lichodziejewska B, Klos J, Rezler J, et al. Clinical Symptoms of Mitral Valve Prolapse Are Related to Hypomagnesemia and Attenuated by Magnesium Supple-mentation. Am .1 Cardiol. March 15 1997;79(6):768–772.
   Google Scholar
• Pang X, Marchand J, Sant GR, et al. Increased Number of Substance P Posi-tive Nerve Fibers in Interstitial Cystitis. Br .1 Urol. June 1995;75(6):744–750.
   Google Scholar
• Clauw DJ, Schmidt M, Radulovic D, et al. The Relationship Between Fibro-myalgia and Interstitial Cystitis. .1 Psychiatr Res. January-February 1997;31(4125–131.
   Google Scholar
• Becking GC. Hepatic Drug Metabolism in Iron-, Magnesium-, and Potassium-Deficient Rats. Fed Proc. November 1976;35(13):2480–2485.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ziem G, McTamney J. Profile of Patients with Chemical Injury and Sensitiv-ity. Environ Health Perspect. March 1997;105\(suppl 2):417–436.
   Google Scholar
• McFadden SA. Phenotypic Variation on Xenobiotic Metabolism and Adverse Environmental Response: Focus on Sulfur-Dependent Detoxification Pathways. Tox-icology. July 1996;111(1-3):43–65.
   Google Scholar
• Buchwald D, Garrity D. Comparison of Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syn-drome, Fibromyalgia, and Multiple Chemical Sensitivities. Arch Intern Med. Sep-tember 26 1994;154(18):2049–2053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galland L. Biochemical Abnormalities in Patients with Multiple Chemical Sensitivities. Occup Med. October 1987;2(4):713–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvaggio JE, Terr Al. Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Multiorgan Dyesthesia, Multiple Symptom Complex, and Multiple Confusion: Problems in Diagnosing the Patient Presenting with Unexplained Multisystemic Symptoms. Crit Rev Toxicol. November 1996;26(6):617–631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchins JB, Hollyfield JG. Human Retinas Synthesize and Release Acetyl-choline. .1 Neurochem. July 1986;47(1):81–87.
   Google Scholar
• Knave B, Tengroth B, Voss M. Age and Sex Distribution of Some Retinal Macular Diseases: Senile and Presenile Macular Degeneration and Central Serous Retinitis. Acta Ophthalmol SuppL 1984;161:95–103.
   Google Scholar
• Ciarallo L, Sauer AH, Shannon MW. Intravenous Magnesium Therapy for Moderate to Severe Pediatric Asthma: Results of a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. J Pediatr. December 1996;129(6):809–814.
   Google Scholar
• Ziment I. Alternative Therapies for Asthma. Curr Opin Pulm Med. January 1997;3(1):61–71.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill J, Micklewright A, Lewis S, et al. Investigation of the Effect of Short-Term Change in Dietary Magnesium Intake in Asthma. Eur Respir J. October 1997;10(10):2225–2229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trivedi N, Mithal A, Gupta SK, et al. Reversible Impairment of Glucose Tol-erance in Patients with Endemic Fluorosis. Diabetologia. 1993;36:826–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinals F, Testar X, Palacin M, et al. Inhibitory Effect of Fluoride on Insulin Receptor Autophosphorylation and Tyrosine Kinase Activity. Biochem J. 1993;291: 615–622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinals F, Camps M, Testar X, et al. Effect of Cations on the Tyrosin Kinase Activity of the Insulin Receptor: Inhibition by Fluoride is Magnesium Dependent. Mol Cell Biochem. 1997;171:69–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frankel BL, Patten BM, Gillin JC. Restless Legs Syndrome. Sleep-Electroen-cephalographic and Neurologic Findings. JAMA. December 2 1974;230(9):1302–1303.
   Google Scholar
• Popoviciu L, Asgian B, Delast-Popoviciu D, et al. Clinical, EEG, Electromyo-graphic and Polysomnographic Studies in Restless Legs Syndrome Caused by Mag-nesium Deficiency. Rom J Neurol Psychiatry. January 1993;31(1):55–61.
   Google Scholar
• Fox MRS. Effects of Dietary Mineral Levels on Metabolism and Require-ments. Neurotoxicology. 1983;4(3):113–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malleson PN, al Matar M, Petty RE. Idiopathic Musculoskeletal Pain Syn-dromes in Children. J Rheumatol. November 1992;19(11):1786–1789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberklaid F, Amos D, Liu C, et al. "Growing Pains": Clinical and Behavioral Correlates in a Community Sample. J Dev Behav Pediatr April 1997;18(2):102–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner SR. Growing Pains. Am Fam Physician. 1983;27(1):189–191.
   Google Scholar
• Natelson BH. NJ Center for Environmental Hazards Research. FEDRIP Data-base, National Technical Information Service (NTIS); 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Bradley LA, Alarcon GS. Fibromyalgia. In: Koopman WJ ed. Arthritis and Allied Conditions: A Textbook of Rheumatology. New York: Williams and Wilkins; 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Michel IN, Suttie JAV, Sunde ML. Fluorine Deposition in Bone as Related to Physiological State. Poult Sci. 1984;63(7):1407–1411.
   Google Scholar
• Vikoren T, Stuve G. Fluoride Exposure and Selected Characteristics of Eggs and Bones of the Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) and the Common Gull (Larus ca-nus). J Wildl Dis. April 1996;32(2):190–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith FA, Gardner DE, Hodge HC. Age Increase in Fluoride Content in Hu-man Bone. Fed Proc. 1953;12:368.
   Google Scholar
• Bixler D, Muhler JC, Shafer WG. Experimental Dental Caries. V. The Effects of Desalivation and Castration on Caries and Fluorine Storage in the Rat. J Nutr. 1954;52:345–353.
   Google Scholar
• Messer HH. Fluorine. In: Frieden E ed. Biochemistry of the Essential Ultra-trace Elements. New York: Plenum Press; 1984:55–87.
   Google Scholar
• Vogel JA, Friedl, KE. Body Fat Assessment in Women. Special Consider-ations. Sports Med. April 1992;13(4):245–269.
   Google Scholar
• Russell U. Neurohormonal Aspects of Fibromyalgia Syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1989;15:149–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jezova D, Jurankova E, Mosnarova A, et al. Neuroendocrine Reponse During Stress with Relation to Gender Differences. Acta Neurobiol Exp. 1996;56:779–785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay AM. Myalgic Encephalomyelitis and Postviral Fatigue States: The Saga of Royal Free Disease. 2nd Ed. London: Gower Medical Publishing; 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Manocha SL, Warner H, Olkowski, ZL. Cytochemical Response of Kidney, Liver and Nervous System to Fluoride Ions in Drinking Water. Histochem J. 1975;7:343–355.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buskila D, Neumann L, Vaisberg G, et al. Increased Rates of Fibromyalgia Following Cervical Spine Injury. Arthritis Rheum. March 1997;40(3):446–452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke K, Koslowe P, Roy M. Symptoms in 18,495 Persian Gulf War Veter-ans. Latency of Onset and Lack of Association with Self-Reported Exposures. J Oc-cup Environ Med. June 1998;40(6):520–528.
   Google Scholar
• Mukhopadhyay P, Chakraborty S, Mukherjee S. Postcardiac Injury Rheuma-tism. J Assoc Physicians India. June 1995;43(6):388–390.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Friis S, Mellemkjaer L, McLaughlin JK, et al. Connective Tissue Disease and Other Rheumatic Conditions Following Breast Implants in Denmark. Ann Plast Surg. July 1997;39(1):1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beisel WR. Herman Award Lecture, 1995: Infection-Induced Malnutri-tion-From Cholera to Cytokines. Am J Clin Nutr. October 1995;62(4):813–819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine PH. Epidemiologic Advances in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. J Psy-chiatr Res. January-February 1997;31(1):7–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbridge TC, Hall JB. The Assessment and Management of Adults with Sta-tus Asthmaticus. Am J Respir Grit Care Med. May 1995;151(5):1296–1316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skobeloff EM, Spivey WH, Silverman R, et al. The Effect of the Menstrual Cycle on Asthma Presentations in the Emergency Department. Arch Intern Med. Sep-tember 9 1996;156(16):1837–1840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini J, Firuzian F, Feely J. Ethnic Differences in the Frequency Distribu-tion of Serum Cholinesterase Activity. Ir J Med Sci. January 1997;166(1):10–12.
   Google Scholar
• Leone NC, Martin AE, Minoguchi G, et al. Fluorides and General Health. In: Fluorides and Human Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1970:273–321.
   Google Scholar
• Selwitz RH. Strategies for Improving Methods of Assessing Fluoride Accu-mulation in Body Fluids and Tissues. Adv Dent Res. 1994;8(1):111–112.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Research Council Committee on Biologic Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants. Fluorides. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Cox IM, Campbell MJ, Dowson D. Red Blood Cell Magnesium and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Lancet. 1991;337:757–760.
   Google Scholar
• Abraham GE, Flechas JD. Management of Fibromyalgia: Rationale for the Use of Magnesium and Malic Acid. J Nutr Med. 1992;3:49–59.
   Google Scholar
• Russell IJ, Michalek JE, Flechas JD, et al. Treatment of Fibromyalgia Syn-drome with Super Malic: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo Controlled, Cross-over Pilot Study. J Rheumatol. 1995;22(5):953–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimonovitz S, Patz D, Ever-Hadani P, et al. Umbilical Cord Fluoride Serum Levels May Not Reflect Fetal Fluoride Status. J Perinat Med. 1995;23(4):279–282.
   Google Scholar
• Brambilla E, Belluomo G, Malerba A, et al. Oral Administration of Fluoride in Pregnant Women, and the Relation Between Concentration in Maternal Plasma and in Amniotic Fluid. Arch Oral Biol. 1994;39(11):991–994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar