The Psychological Effects of Skin Color on African Americans' Self-Esteem

References

• Akbar , N. The evolution of human psychology for African-Americans . Published manuscript presented to SREB Student Conference . Atlanta , Georgia
   Google Scholar
• Baldwin , J. 1979 . Theory and research concerning the notion of Black self-hatred: A review and reinterpretation . The Journal of Black Psychology , 5 ( 2 ) : 51 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Banks , W. C. 1976 . White preference in Blacks: A paradigm in search of a phenomenon . Psychological Bulletin , 83 ( 6 ) : 1179 – 1186 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blakemore , J. and Blakemore , G. 1998 . “ Black youth gangs: A quest for equality ” . In Human Behavior in the Social Environment from an African American Perspective , Edited by: See , L. New York : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Beverly , C. 1998 . “ Black on Black crime: Compensation for idiomatic purpose-lessness ” . In Human Behavior in the Social Environment: An African American Perspective , Edited by: See , L. New York : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Blassingame , J. 1979 . The Slave Community , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blumer , H. 1962 . “ Society as symbolic interaction ” . In Human behavior and social processes , Edited by: Rose , A. 179 – 192 . Boston : Houston, Miffin .
   Google Scholar
• Blumer , H. 1969 . Symbolic interactions: Perspective and method , NJ : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Chambers , J. W. , Clark , T. , Dantzler , L. and Baldwin , J. A. 1994 . Perceived attractiveness, facial features, and African self-consciousness . Journal of Black Psychology , : 305 – 324 .
   Google Scholar
• Chestang , L. 1984 . “ Racial and personal identity in the Black experience ” . In Color in a White Society , Edited by: White , B. Silver Spring , MD : NASW Publication .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , K. B. and Clark , M. K. 1939 . The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of social identification in Negro preschool children . Journal of Social Psychology , 10 November : 591 – 599 .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , K. B. and Clark , M. P. 1940 . Skin color as a factor in racial identification of Negro Preschool children . Journal of Social Psychology , 1940 ( 11 ) : 159 – 169 .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , K. B. and Clark , M. P. 1947 . “ Racial identification and preference in Negro Children ” . In Readings in social psychology, , (1st ed.) , Edited by: Newcomb , T. M. and Hartley , E. L. New York : Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , K. B. and Clark , M. P. 1950 . Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children . Journal of Negro education , 19 : 341 – 351 .
   Google Scholar
• Cooley , C. H. 1964 . Human Nature and the Social Order , New York : Schocken Press .
   Google Scholar
• Connerly , W. and Rhodes , T. 1997 . Proposition 209 won't gut affirmative action . Wall Street Journal , Feb. 11 1997
   Google Scholar
• Cross , W. E. 1991 . Shades of black: Diversity in African-American racial identity , Philadelphia : Temple University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dion , K. , Berschid , E. and Walster , E. 1972 . What is beautiful is good . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 24 : 285 – 290 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Souza , D. 1994 . The end of racism , New York : The Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• DuBois , W. E. B. 1959 . The talented tenth , Edited by: Lee , U. 31 – 76 . New York : York: Arno Press and New York Times .
   Google Scholar
• April 1992 . Ebony Magazine , April , Chicago : Johnson Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Elkins , S. 1959 . Slavery , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Emerge magazine . November 1996 . Uncle Thomas lawn jockey for the far right November ,
   Google Scholar
• Erikson , E. 1968 . Identity: Youth and crisis , New York : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Franklin , J. H. 1993 . The color line: Legacy for the twenty-first century , Columbia : University of Missouri Press .
   Google Scholar
• Franklin , J. H. , ed. 1968 . Color and race , Boston : Beacon, Garcia, B. & Swanson . 1992
   Google Scholar
• Franklin , J. H. 1974 . From Slaveiy to Freedom, , 5th ed. , New York : Knopf .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1940 . Negro youth at the crossings: The personality development in the middle states , Washington , D.C. : American Council on Education .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1949 . The Negro in the United States , New York : McMillan .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1966 . The Negro family in the United States , Chicago : University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1957a . The Black Bourgeoisie , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1957b . The Negro in the United States , New York : McMillan .
   Google Scholar
• Freeman , H. E. 1966 . Color gradation and attitudes among middle income Negroes . American Sociological Review , 31 : 365 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genovese , E. D. 1974 . Roll Jordan Roll: The world the slaves made , New York : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs , J. T. , Huang , L. N. and Associates . 1989 . Children of color: Psychological interventions with minority youth , San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Giovanni , N. 1994 . Racism 101 , 52 New York : William Morrow .
   Google Scholar
• Gopaul-McNicol , S. A. 1986 . The effects of modeling, reinforcement, and color meaning word association of Black preschool children and White preschool children in New York and Trinidad , Hofstra University . Unpublished doctoral dissertation
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs , J. T. , Huang , L. N. and Associates . 1989 . “ Children of color ” . In Psychological interventions with minority youth , San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Gorman , C. 1997 . To ban or not to ban? The report of a Presidential Commission sets the stage for a national debate on human cloning . Time , June 16
   Google Scholar
• Gutman , H. G. 1976 . The Black family in slavery andfreedom-1925–1750 New York , Vintage
   Google Scholar
• Hale , J. 1982 . Black Children: Their roots, culture and learning styles , Provo , UT : Brigham Young University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , R. E. 1990b . The projected manifestations of aspiration, personal values, and environment assessment cognates of cutaneo-chroma (skin color) for a selected population of African-Americans Vol. 50 , 3363 A Dissertation Abstracts International
   Google Scholar
• Hall , R. E. 1992 . Bias among African-Americans regarding skin color: Implication for social work practice . Research on Social Work Practice , 2 : 479 – 486 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , R. E. 1995 . The bleaching syndrome: African Americans' response to cultural domination vis a vis skin color . Journal of Black Studies , 26 : 172 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamburg , E. , Gielberman , L. , Roeper , P. , Schork , A. and Schull , W. 1978 . Skin color, ethnicity, and blood pressure . American Journal of Public Health , 68 : 1177 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen , S. L. 1971 . Black and White identity formation , New York : Inter-science .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , A. 1995 . The issue of skin color in psychology with African Americans: Families in . Journal of Contemporary Human Sources , 76 : 3 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernton , C. 1965 . Sex and racism in America , New York : Grove .
   Google Scholar
• Hertel , B. and Hughes , M. 1988 . The Significance of color remains . Social Forces , 68 : 1105 – 1120 .
   Google Scholar
• Hopson , D. P. and Hopson , D. S. 1992 . “ Implications of doll color preferences among black preschool children and white preschool children ” . In African American Psychology , Edited by: Burlew , H. California : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Houston , L. 1984 . Black consciousness and self esteem . Journal of Black Psychology , 11 ( 1 )
   Google Scholar
• Hubbard , R. 1997 . Complex Enhancements are far in the future . Chronicle of Higher Education , October 3 : 18
   Google Scholar
• Hughes , M. and Hertel , B. R. 1990 . The significance of color remains: A study of life chores mates, mate selection, and ethnic consciousness among Black Americans . Social Forces , 68 ( 4 ) June : 1105 – 1120 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins , Y. 1988 . Greek and elite . Essence Magazine ,
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , J. and Farrell , W. 1995 . Race still matters . Chronical of Higher Education , 41 : A-48
   Google Scholar
• Jones , B. F. 1966 . James Baldwin: The struggle for identity . British Journal of Sociology , 17 : 107 – 121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , R. L. , ed. 1980 . Black pride in the seventies , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Jordan , J. 1994 . “ Technical difficulties: African Americans on the state of the union ” . In Vintage Books 206 – 217 . New York
   Google Scholar
• Jordan , W. 1974 . The White Man's burden: Historical origins of racism in the United States , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Juengst . 1997 . Interview on barring genetic enhancement, and biomedical ethics. Cited in . Chronicle of Higher Education , 1997 October 3 : 18
   Google Scholar
• Karenga , M. 1993 . Introduction to Black Studies., , 2nd. Edition , Los Angeles : The University of Sankore Press .
   Google Scholar
• Keith , V. and Herring , C. 1991 . Skin tone and stratification in Black community . American Journal of Sociology , 97 : 760 – 778 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiernan , V. October 3 1997 . “ Cosmic uses of genetic engineering may soon be a reality ” . In The Chronicle of Higher Education October 3 , 17 – 18 . Washington , D.C.
   Google Scholar
• Kilson , M. 1993 . The anatomy of black conservatives . Transition, Issue , 59 : 14 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Kluger , J. 1997 . We will follow the sheep . Time Magazine , March 10 : 67 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Knorr , K. 1997 . Cosmic uses of genetic engineering may soon be a reality. Office of Recombinant DNA Activities . National Institute of Health , October 3
   Google Scholar
• Landry , B. 1987 . The black middle class , Berkeley & Los Angeles : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , S. and Gates , H. L. 1991 . Rap on Race, politics and cinema . Transition Issue , 52 : 185
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , G. 1972 . Black women in White America , New York : Vintage .
   Google Scholar
• Lynn , E. S. November 13 1997 . Interview with Adjunct Professor Edwina S. Lynn regarding her opinion of Ward Connerly , November 13 , Poteau : Oklahoma .
   Google Scholar
• Madhere , S. 1991 . Self-esteem of African American preadolescents: Theoretical and practical considerations . Journal of Negro Education , 60 : 47 – 61 .
   Google Scholar
• Malveaux , J. 1991 . Black conservatives in the spotlight San Francisco Examiner July 6
   Google Scholar
• Martin , E. and Martin , J. 1978 . The black extended family , Chicago : The University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , E. and Martin , J. 1985 . The helping tradition in the black community , Washington , D.C. : The National Association of Social Workers .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , H. P. 1970 . Racial attitudes and self-concepts in Black preschool children , (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1970). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 31.3963A. University Microfilms No. 71–479 .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , H. P. 1974 . “ Racial attitudes and self concepts in Black preschool children ” . In Social Research and the Black Community , Edited by: Gray , L. 66 – 75 . Washington , DC : Howard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , H. P. Development of self concept and race attitudes in Black Children Longitudinal study . Third Conference on Empirical Research in Black Psychology . pp. 47 – 64 . Washington , D.C. : National Institute of Education .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , H. P. 1978 . Factors related to stability in upwardly mobile Black families . Journal of Marriage and the Family , 40 ( 4 ) : 80 – 99 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mead , G. H. 1934 . Mind self and society , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Morrow , V. 1990 . Internal Revenue Service , 742 F. Supp. 670 (N.D. Ga.)
   Google Scholar
• Myrdal , G. 1944 . An American dilemma , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Nash , J. M. 1997 . The age of Cloning . Time Magazine , March 10 : 62 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Neal , A. M. and Wilson , M. L. 1989 . The role of skin color and features in the Black community: Implications for Black women and therapy . Clinical Psychology Review , 9 : 323 – 333 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negro Population in the United States 1790–1915 208 U.S. Bureau of Census
   Google Scholar
• Noguchi , P. 1997 . Cosmetic uses of genetic engineering may soon be a reality. F.D.A.'s division of cellular and gene therapies. Cited in . Chronicle of Higher Education , October 3 : 17
   Google Scholar
• Norton , D. 1978 . The dual perspective , New York : Council on Social Work Education .
   Google Scholar
• Norton , D. 1983 . “ Residential environment and black self image ” . In The Diverse Society: Implications for Social Policy Edited by: Cafferty , P. S. J. and Chestang , L. 75 – 89 .
   Google Scholar
• Norton , D. 1983 . “ Black family life patterns, the development of self and cognitive development of Black children ” . In The psychosocial development of minority group children , Edited by: Powell , G. J. 181 – 19 . New York : Brunner/Mazel .
   Google Scholar
• Noguchi , L. 1997 . Cosmic uses of genetic engineering may soon be a reality . The Chronicle of Higher Education , October 3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okazawa-Rey , M. , Robinson , T. and Ward , J. V. 1987 . Black women and the politics of skin color and hair . Women and Therapy , 6 ( 1/2 ) : 89 – 102 .
   Google Scholar
• Parham , T. and Williams , P. 1993 . The relationship of demographic and background factors to racial identity attitudes . Journal of Black Psychology , 19 : 7 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Parrish , C. 1940 . The significance of color in the Negro community , University of Chicago . Unpublished doctoral dissertation
   Google Scholar
• Pettigrew , T. F. 1964 . A Profile of the Negro Americans , 3 – 26 . New Jersey : D. Von N Nonstrand Company, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Porter , C. 1991 . Social reasons for skin tone preferences of black school age children . Journal of American Orthopsychiatry Association , 61 : 149 – 154 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poussaint , A. and Cobbs , P. 1992 . Clarence Thomas and the Blacks . Commentary , February : 150
   Google Scholar
• Powell-Hopson , D. and Hopson , D. S. 1992 . “ Implications of doll color preference among Black preschool children and white preschool children ” . In African American Psychology , Edited by: Burleu , A. K. , Banks , W. C. , McAdoo , H. P. and Azibo , D. A. 183 – 189 . California : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Powell , G. J. 1973 . “ Self concept in White and Black children ” . In Racism and Mental Health , Edited by: Miller , C. , Kramer , B. and Brown , B. Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press .
   Google Scholar
• Redd , A. 1997 . A descriptive study of the relationship between attitudes and self-esteem among bi-racial individuals: A thesis , Atlanta , GA : School of Social Work. Clark-Atlanta University .
   Google Scholar
• Reuther , E. B. 1918 . The mulatto in the United States , New York : Negro University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Reuther , E. 1969 . The mulatto in the United States , New York : Haskell House .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , T. and Ward , J. 1995 . African American adolescents and skin color . Journal of Black Psychology , 21 : 256 – 274 .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , Morris . 1965 . Society and the adolescent self-image , Princeton : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , M. 1965 . Black and white self esteem: The urban school child , Washington , D. C. : American Sociological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Rowan , Carl . 1992 . “ Cited by L. Gordon Crovitz in his introduction to Clarence Thomas ” . In Confronting the future , 14 Washington , D. C. : Regency Gateway .
   Google Scholar
• Russell , K. , Wilson , M. and Hall , R. 1992 . The color complex: The politics of skin color among African Americans , Orlando , FL : Harcourt-Brace Jovanovish .
   Google Scholar
• Seltzer , R. and Smith , R. 1991 . Color differences in the Afro-American community and the differences they make . Journal of Black Studies , 21 : 279 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiele , J. 1998 . “ Cultural alignment: African American male youths and violent crime ” . In Human behavior and the social environment from an African American Perspective , Edited by: See , L. New York : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Soares , A. and Soares , L. 1969 . Self conception of culturally disadvantaged children . American Education Research Journal , 6 : 31 – 45 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprinthall , N. 1988 . Adolescent psychology: A development view , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• St. Julian , A. 1977 . Colored Creole: Color conflicts and confusion , New Orleans , LA : Ahidiaba-Habari .
   Google Scholar
• Stack , C. 1974 . All our kin: Strategies for survival in a black community , New York : Haiper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. S. 1953 . An interpersonal theory of psychiatry , NY : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. S. 1964 . The fusion of psychiatry and science , New York : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• 1989 . Task force to promote self-esteem: Los Angeles (Commission)
   Google Scholar
• Thurman , N. 1970 . The blacker the berry , New York : November Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Labor, 1990 .
   Google Scholar
• 1997 . Time magazine , June 23 Front man for the far right
   Google Scholar
• Udry , J. R. , Bauman , K. E. and Chase , C. 1971 . Skin color, status, and mate selection . American Journal of Sociology , 76 : 722 – 733 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1990 . U. S. Bureau of the Census Washington , D. C.
   Google Scholar
• Ward , N. September, 15 1997 . “ Interview with Professor Naomi Ward on intra-racial skin color ” . In Chair of graduate Human Behavior sequence , September, 15 , Clark-Atlanta University .
   Google Scholar
• Warner , W. L. , Junber , B. H. and Adams , W. A. 1969 . Color and human nature. Negro personality, development in a Northern city , New York : Harper .
   Google Scholar
• Webster , M. and Driskell , J. E. 1983 . Beauty as status . American Journal of Sociology , 89 : 140 – 163 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsing , F. C. 1991 . The isis Papers: The keys to the colors , Chicago : Third World Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wheeler , D. L. 1997 . Three medical organizations embroiled in controversy over use of placebos in AIDS studies abroad . Chronicle of Higher Education , December 12 : 15 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• White , J. L. 1984 . The Psychology of Blacks: An African-American Perspective , Englewood Cliffs , N. J. : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Willard . 1997 . Interview on barring genetic enhancement, and biomedical ethics. Cited in . Chronicle of Hither Education , Oct. 3 : 18
   Google Scholar
• Williams , C. 1976 . The destruction of black civilization: Great issues of a race from 4500 B.C. to 2000 A.D. , Chicago : Third World Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wirth , L. and Goldhammer , H. 1944 . “ The hybrid and the problem of miscegenation ” . In Characteristics of the Negro , New York : Harper & Brothers .
   Google Scholar
• Wolman , B. 1965 . Handbook of Clinical Psychology , N.Y. : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar