Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Cannabinoids

REFERENCES

• Abrams , R. M. , Cook , C. E. , Davis , K. H. , Niederreither , K. , Jaeger , M. J. and Szeto , H. H. 1985–1986 . Plasma delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in pregnant sheep and fetus after inhalation of smoke from a marijuana cigarette. . Alcohol Drug Res , 6 ( 5 ) : 361 – 9 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agurell , S. , Nilsson , I. M. , Ohlsson , A. and Sandberg , F. 1970 . On the metabolism of tritium-labelled, Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rabbit. . Biochem Pharmacol , 19 ( 4 ) : 1333 – 9 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agurell , S. and Leander , K. 1971 . Stability, transfer and absorption of cannabinoid constituents of cannabis (hashish) during smoking. . Acta Pharm Suec , 8 ( 4 ) : 391 – 402 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agurell , S. , Carlsson , S. , Lindgren , J. E. , Ohlsson , A. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. 1981 . Interactions of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol with cannabinol and cannabidiol following oral administration in man. Assay of cannabinol and cannabidiol by mass fragmentography. . Experientia , 37 ( 10 ) : 1090 – 2 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alburges , M. E. and Peat , M. A. 1986 . Profiles of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites in urine of marijuana users: preliminary observations by high performance liquid chromatography-radioimmunoassay. . J Forensic Sci , 31 ( 2 ) : 695 – 706 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alozie , S. O. , Martin , B. R. , Harris , L. S. and Dewey , W. L. 1980 . 3H-delta 9-Tetrahydro-cannabinol, 3H-cannabinol and 3H-cannabidiol: penetration and regional distribution in rat brain. . Pharmacol Biochem Behav , 12 ( 2 ) : 217 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey , J. R. , Cunny , H. C. , Paule , M. G. and Slikker , W. Jr. 1987 . Fetal disposition of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) during late pregnancy in the rhesus monkey. . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 90 ( 2 ) : 315 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker , P. B. , Taylor , B. J. and Gough , T. A. 1981 . The tetrahydrocannabinol and tetra-hydrocannabinolic acid content of cannabis products. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 33 ( 6 ) : 369 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett , G. , Chiang , C. W. , Perez-Reyes , M. and Owens , S. M. 1982 . Kinetic study of smoking marijuana. . J Pharmacokinet Biopharm , 10 ( 5 ) : 495 – 506 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnett , G. , Licko , V. and Thompson , T. 1985 . Behavioral pharmacokinetics of marijuana. . Psychopharmacology , 85 ( 1 ) : 51 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackard , C. and Tennes , K. 1984 . Human placental transfer of cannabinoids. . N Engl J Med , 311 ( 12 ) : 797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornheim , L. M. , Everhart , E. T. , Li , J. and Correia , M. A. 1994 . Induction and genetic regulation of mouse hepatic cytochrome P450 by cannabidiol. . Biochem Pharmacol , 48 ( 1 ) : 161 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornheim , L. M. , Kim , K. Y. , Li , J. , Perotti , B. Y. and Benet , L. Z. 1995 . Effect of cannabidiol pretreatment on the kinetics of tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites in mouse brain. . Drug Metab Dispos , 23 ( 8 ) : 825 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornheim , L. M. and Grillo , M. P. 1998 . Characterization of cytochrome P450 3A in-activation by cannabidiol: possible involvement of cannabidiol-hydroxyquinone as a P450 inactivator. . Chem Res Toxicol , 11 ( 10 ) : 1209 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borys , H. K. and Karler , R. 1979 . Cannabidiol and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolism. In vitro comparison of mouse and rat liver crude microsome preparations. . Biochem Pharmacol , 28 ( 9 ) : 1553 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boskovic , R. , Klein , J. , Woodland , C. , Karaskov , T. and Koren , G. 2001 . The role of the placenta in variability of fetal exposure to cocaine and cannabinoids: a twin study. . Can J Physiol Pharmacol , 79 ( 11 ) : 942 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. 1984 . Psychotrope Drogen. II. Bestimmung der Cannabinoide in Cannabis sativa L. und in Cannabisprodukten mittels Hochdruckflüssigkeitschromatographie (HPLC) . Pharmaceutica Acta Helvetiae , 59 ( 9–10 ) : 247 – 59 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. , Egli , A. , Elsohly , M. A. , Henn , V. and Spiess , Y. 1996 . The effect of orally and rectally administered delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on spasticity: a pilot study with 2 patients. . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther , 34 ( 10 ) : 446 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. 2002 . “ Pharmacokinetics. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Brewster , M. E. , Pop , E. , Foltz , R. L. , Reuschel , S. , Griffith , W. , Amselem , S. and Biegon , A. 1997 . Clinical pharmacokinetics of escalating i.v. doses of dexanabinol (HU-211), a neuroprotectant agent, in normal volunteers . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther , 35 ( 9 ) : 361 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chao , F. C. , Green , D. E. , Forrest , I. S. , Kaplan , J. N. , Winship-Ball , A. and Braude , M. 1976 . The passage of 14C-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol into the milk of lactating squirrel monkeys. . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 15 ( 2 ) : 303 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Chiang , C. N. and Rapaka , R. S. 1987 . Pharmacokinetics and disposition of cannabinoids. . NIDA Res Monogr , 79 : 173 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Chiang , C. W. , Barnett , G. and Brine , D. 1983 . Systemic absorption of delta 9-tetra-hydrocannabinol after ophthalmic administration to the rabbit. . J Pharm Sci , 72 ( 2 ) : 136 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiang , C. W. and Barnett , G. 1984 . Marijuana effect and delta-9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol plasma level. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 36 ( 2 ) : 234 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cocchetto , D. M. , Owens , S. M. , Perez-Reyes , M. , DiGuiseppi , S. and Miller , L. L. 1981 . Relationship between plasma delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentration and pharmacologic effects in man. . Psychopharmacology , 75 ( 2 ) : 158 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , E. J. and Johnson , R. E. 1986 . Contact highs and urinary cannabinoid excretion after passive exposure to marijuana smoke. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 40 ( 3 ) : 247 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , E. J. , Johnson , R. E. , Darwin , W. D. , Yousefnejad , D. , Mell , L. D. , Paul , B. D. and Mitchell , J. 1987 . Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke: urinalysis and room air levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . J Anal Toxicol , 11 ( 3 ) : 89 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , E. J. and Huestis , M. A. 1993 . Relating blood concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites to pharmacologic effects and time of marijuana usage. . Ther Drug Monit , 15 ( 6 ) : 527 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Consroe , P. , Laguna , J. , Allender , J. , Snider , S. , Stern , L. , Sandyk , R. , Kennedy , K. and Schram , K. 1991 . Controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol in Huntington's disease. . Pharmacol Biochem Behav , 40 ( 3 ) : 701 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa , B. , Parolaro , D. and Colleoni , M. 1996 . Chronic cannabinoid, CP-55, 940, administration alters biotransformation in the rat. . Eur J Pharmacol , 313 ( 1–2 ) : 17 – 24 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Daldrup , Th. , Thompson , T. and Reidenbach , G. 1988 . “ Cannabiskonsum-Nachweis-barkeitsdauer, zeitlicher Verlauf, forensische Bedeutung. In ” . In Suchtkrankheiten, Diagnose, Therapie und analytischer Nachweis Edited by: Arnold , W. , Poser , W. E. and Müller , M. R. Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag. .
   Google Scholar
• Daldrup , Th . 1996 . Cannabis im Straßenverkehr. Final report commissioned by the Ministry of Economy, Technology and Traffic of North Rhine-Westphalia. Düsseldorf : University of Düsseldorf. .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , K. H. , McDaniell , J. A. , Cadwell , L. W. and Moody , P. L. 1984 . “ Some smoking characteristics of marijuana cigarettes. In ” . In The Cannabinoids: Chemical, Pharmacologic and Therapeutic Aspects Edited by: Agurell , S. , Dewey , W. L. and Willette , R. E. New York : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Dewey , W. L. 1986 . Cannabinoid pharmacology. . Pharmacol Rev , 38 ( 2 ) : 151 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , G. M. Jr. , Mann , M. A. , Judson , B. A. , Schramm , N. T. and Tashchian , A. 1985 . Excretion patterns of cannabinoid metabolites after last use in a group of chronic users. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 38 ( 5 ) : 572 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. , Stanford , D. F. , Harland , E. C. , Hikal , A. H. , Walker , L. A. , Little , T. L. Jr. , Rider , J. N. and Jones , A. B. 1991 . Rectal bioavailability of delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol from the hemisuccinate ester in monkeys. . J Pharm Sci , 80 ( 10 ) : 942 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. , Ross , S. A. , Mehmedic , Z. , Arafat , R. , Yi , B. and Banahan , B. F. 2000 . Potency trends of Δ9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980–1997. . J Forensic Sci , 45 ( 1 ) : 24 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. 2002 . “ Chemical constituents of cannabis. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Fairbairn , J. W. , Liebmann , J. A. and Rowan , M. G. 1976 . The stability of cannabis and its preparations on storage. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 28 ( 1 ) : 1 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehr , K. O. and Kalant , H. 1974 . Fate of 14C-delta1-THC in rat plasma after intravenous injection and smoking. . Eur J Pharmacol , 25 ( 1 ) : 1 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Frytak , S. , Moertel , C. G. and Rubin , J. 1984 . Metabolic studies of delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol in cancer patients. . Cancer Treat Rep , 68 ( 12 ) : 1427 – 31 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garrett , E. R. and Hunt , C. A. Physiochemical properties, solubility, and protein binding of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . J Pharm Sci , 63 ( 7 ) 1056 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Garriott , J. C. , Di Maio , V. J. and Rodriguez , R. G. 1986 . Detection of cannabinoids in homicide victims and motor vehicle fatalities. . J Forensic Sci , 31 ( 4 ) : 1274 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill , E. W. and Jones , G. 1972 . Brain levels of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in mice—correlation with behaviour, and the effect of the metabolic inhibitors SKF 525A and piperonyl butoxide. . Biochem Pharmacol , 21 ( 16 ) : 2237 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Gronholm , M. and Lillsunde , P. 2001 . A comparison between on-site immunoassay drug-testing devices and laboratory results. . Forensic Sci Int , 121 ( 1–2 ) : 37 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen , F. 2001 . “ Grenzwertmodelle zur Bestimmung der Fahrtüchtigkeit und Messverfahren ” . Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Karus , M. Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag. . Cannabiskonsum, Straßenverker und Arbeitswelt [Cannabis use, driving and workplace]
   Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen , F. 2002a . “ Practical hints. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen , F. 2002b . “ Review of unwanted actions of Cannabis and THC. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Guy , G. W. and Flint , M. E. 2000 . “ A phase one study of sublingual Cannabis based medicinal extracts. ” . In 2000 Symposium on the Cannabinoids 115 Burlington, VT : International Cannabinoid Research Society .
   Google Scholar
• Haggerty , G. C. , Deskin , R. , Kurtz , P. J. , Fentiman , A. F. and Leighty , E. G. 1986 . The pharmacological activity of the fatty acid conjugate 11-palmitoyloxy-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 84 ( 3 ) : 599 – 606 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halldin , M. M. , Andersson , L. K. , Widman , M. and Hollister , L. E. 1982b . Further urinary metabolites of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Arzneimittelforschung , 32 ( 9 ) : 1135 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halldin , M. M. , Carlsson , S. , Kanter , S. L. , Widman , M. and Agurell , S. 1982a . Urinary metabolites of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Arzneimittelforschung , 32 ( 7 ) : 764 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. , Buonarati , M. , Baselt , R. , Wade , N. , Yep , C. , Biasotti , A. , Reeve , V. , Wong , A. and Orbanowsky , M. 1983 . Comparison of 3H- and 125I-Radioimmunoassay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for the determination of Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol and cannabinoids in blood and serum. . J Anal Toxicol , 7 ( 2 ) : 96 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harder , S. and Rietbrock , S. 1997 . Concentration-effect relationship of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabiol and prediction of psychotropic effects after smoking marijuana. . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther , 35 ( 4 ) : 155 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. 1976 . Characterization of the butyl homologues of delta1-tetrahydro-cannabinol, cannabinol and cannabidiol in samples of cannabis by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 28 ( 4 ) : 280 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. and Paton , W. D.M. 1976 . “ Examination of the metabolites of Δ1-tetra-hydrocannabinol in mouse, liver, heart and lung by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In ” . In Marihuana: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Cellular Effects Edited by: Nahas , G. G. New York : Springer-Verlag. .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. , Leuschner , J. T. and Paton , W. D. 1982 . Gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric studies on the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of delta 1-tetra-hydrocannabinol in the rabbit. . J Chromatogr , 239 : 243 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. 1984 . “ Chemistry, metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the cannabinoids. In ” . In Marihuana in Science and Medicine Edited by: Nahas , G. New York : Raven Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. and Mechoulam , R. 1990 . Metabolites of cannabidiol identified in human urine. . Xenobiotica , 20 ( 3 ) : 303 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. 1991 . “ Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the cannabinoids. In ” . In Biochemistry and Physiology of Substance Abuse Edited by: Watson , R. R. Volume III , Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. and Brown , N. K. 1991 . Comparative in vitro metabolism of the cannabinoids. . Pharmacol Biochem Behav , 40 ( 3 ) : 533 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho , B. T. , Fritchie , G. E. , Kralik , P. M. , Englert , L. F. , McIsaac , W. M. and Idanpaan-Heikkila , J. 1970 . Distribution of tritiated-1 delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rat tissues after inhalation. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 22 ( 7 ) : 538 – 9 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollister , L. E. 1974 . Structure-activity relationships in man of cannabis constituents, and homologs and metabolites of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . Pharmacology , 11 ( 1 ) : 3 – 11 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. 1975 . Interactions in man of delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol. II. Cannabinol and cannabidiol. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 18 ( 1 ) : 80 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister , L. E. , Gillespie , H. K. , Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Wahlen , A. and Agurell , S. 1981 . Do plasma concentrations of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol reflect the degree of intoxication? . J Clin Pharmacol , 21 ( 8–9 Suppl ) 171S-7S
   Google Scholar
• Huestis , M. A. , Henningfield , J. E. and Cone , E. J. 1992a . Blood cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and formation of 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH during and after smoking marijuana. . J Anal Toxicol , 16 ( 5 ) : 276 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis , M. A. , Henningfield , J. E. and Cone , E. J. 1992b . Blood cannabinoids. II. Models for the prediction of time of marijuana exposure from plasma concentrations of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta 9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol (THCCOOH). . J Anal Toxicol , 16 ( 5 ) : 283 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis , M. A. and Cone , E. J. 1998 . Urinary excretion half-life of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans. . Ther Drug Monit , 20 ( 5 ) : 570 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt , C. A. and Jones , R. T. 1980 . Tolerance and disposition of tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 215 ( 1 ) : 35 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt , C. A. , Jones , R. T. , Herning , R. I. and Bachman , J. 1981 . Evidence that cannabidiol does not significantly alter the pharmacokinetics of tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . J Pharmacokinet Biopharm , 9 ( 3 ) : 245 – 60 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hutchings , D. E. , Martin , B. R. , Gamagaris , Z. , Miller , N. and Fico , T. 1989 . Plasma concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in dams and fetuses following acute or multiple prenatal dosing in rats. . Life Sci , 44 ( 11 ) : 697 – 701 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeger , W. , Benet , L. Z. and Bornheim , L. M. 1996 . Inhibition of cyclosporine and tetrahydrocannabinol metabolism by cannabidiol in mouse and human microsomes. . Xenobiotica , 26 ( 3 ) : 275 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. , Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Agurell , S. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. E. 1987 . Single-dose kinetics of deuterium-labelled cannabinol in man after intravenous administration and smoking. . Biomed Environ Mass Spectrom , 14 ( 9 ) : 495 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. and Halldin , M. M. 1989 . Urinary excretion half-life of delta 1-tetra-hydrocannabinol-7-oic acid in heavy marijuana users after smoking. . J Anal Toxicol , 13 ( 4 ) : 218 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. , Halldin , M. M. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. K. 1989a . Terminal elimination plasma half-life of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 1-THC) in heavy users of marijuana. . Eur J Clin Pharmacol , 37 ( 3 ) : 273 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. , Noren , K. , Sjovall , J. and Halldin , M. M. 1989b . Determination of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in human fat biopsies from marihuana users by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. . Biomed Chromatogr , 3 ( 1 ) : 35 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , J. R. , Jennison , T. A. , Peat , M. A. and Foltz , R. L. 1984 . Stability of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC in blood and plasma. . J Anal Toxicol , 8 ( 5 ) : 202 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karniol , I. G. , Shirakawa , I. , Kasinski , N. , Pfeferman , A. and Carlini , E. A. 1974 . Cannabidiol interferes with the effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Eur J Pharmacol , 28 ( 1 ) : 172 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , P. and Jones , R. T. 1992 . Metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol in frequent and infrequent marijuana users. . J Anal Toxicol , 16 ( 4 ) : 228 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , T. H. , Foltin , R. W. , Emurian , C. S. and Fischman , M. W. 1993 . Performance-based testing for drugs of abuse: dose and time profiles of marijuana, amphetamine, alcohol, and diazepam. . J Anal Toxicol , 17 ( 5 ) : 264 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kintz , P. , Cirimele , V. and Ludes , B. 2000 . Detection of cannabis in oral fluid (saliva) and forehead wipes (sweat) from impaired drivers. . J Anal Toxicol , 24 ( 7 ) : 557 – 61 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kommission Deutscher Arzneimittel-Codex. 2001 . “ Monograph: Dronabinol ” . In Deutscher Arzneimittel-Codex (DAC), Loose-Leaf Collection of 2001 edited by Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Apothekerverbände Eschborn, , Germany : Govi-Verlag Pharmazeutischer Verlag . /Stuttgart, Germany: Deutscher Apotheker-Verlag
   Google Scholar
• Kosel , B. W. , Aweeka , F. T. , Benowitz , N. L. , Shade , S. B. , Hilton , J. F. , Lizak , P. S. and Abrams , D. I. 2002 . The effects of cannabinoids on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir and nelfinavir. . AIDS , 16 ( 4 ) : 543 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuz , D. S. and Axelrod , J. 1973 . Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: localization in body fat. . Science , 179 ( 71 ) : 391 – 3 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Law , B. , Mason , P. A. , Moffat , A. C. , Gleadle , R. I. and King , L. J. 1984 . Forensic aspects of the metabolism and excretion of cannabinoids following oral ingestion of cannabis resin. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 36 ( 5 ) : 289 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law , B. and Moffat , A. C. 1985 . “ Marijuana '84 ” . In Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Cannabis Edited by: Harvey , D. J. Oxford : IRL Press Limited. .
   Google Scholar
• Leighty , E. G. 1973 . Metabolism and distribution of cannabinoids in rats after different methods of administration. . Biochem Pharmacol , 22 ( 13 ) : 1613 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Leighty , E. G. , Fentiman , A. F. Jr. and Foltz , R. L. 1976 . Long-retained metabolites of Δ9- and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinols identified as novel fatty acid conjugates. . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 14 ( 1 ) : 13 – 28 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Silberstein , S. D. , Axelrod , J. and Kopin , I. J. 1970 . Marihuana: studies on the disposition and metabolism of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Science , 170 ( 964 ) : 1320 – 2 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Tamarkin , N. R. , Axelrod , J. and Kopin , I. J. 1971 . Delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol: metabolism and disposition in long-term marihuana smokers. . Science , 173 ( 991 ) : 72 – 4 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Weiss , J. L. , Watanabe , A. M. , Galanter , I. M. , Wyatt , R. J. and Cardon , P. V. 1972 . Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Temporal correlation of the psychologic effects and blood levels after various routes of administration. . N Engl J Med , 286 ( 13 ) : 685 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Rubin , A. , Wolen , R. , DeSante , K. , Rowe , H. , Forney , R. and Pence , P. 1982 . Pharmacokinetics, metabolism and drug-abuse potential of nabilone. . Cancer Treat Rev , 9 ( Suppl B ) : 17 – 23 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leuschner , J. T. , Harvey , D. J. , Bullingham , R. E. and Paton , W. D. 1986 . Pharmacokinetics of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rabbits following single or multiple intravenous doses. . Drug Metab Dispos , 4 ( 2 ) : 230 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Lichtman , A. H. , Peart , J. , Poklis , J. L. , Bridgen , D. T. , Razdan , R. K. , Wilson , D. M. , Poklis , A. , Meng , Y. , Byron , P. R. and Martin , B. R. 2000 . Pharmacological evaluation of aerosolized cannabinoids in mice. . Eur J Pharmacol , 399 ( 2–3 ) : 141 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindgren , J. E. , Ohlsson , A. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. and Gillespie , H. 1981 . Clinical effects and plasma levels of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 9-THC) in heavy and light users of cannabis. . Psychopharmacology , 74 ( 3 ) : 208 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magerl , H. , Wiegand , C. and Schulz , E. 1987 . Cannabinoid-Aufnahme durch Passivrauchen. . Arch Kriminol , 179 ( 1–2 ) : 31 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Manno , J. E. , Manno , B. R. , Kemp , P. M. , Alford , D. D. , Abukhalaf , I. K. , McWilliams , M. E. , Hagaman , F. N. and Fitzgerald , M. J. 2001 . Temporal indication of marijuana use can be estimated from plasma and urine concentrations of Δ9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol, 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocanna-binol-9-carboxylic acid. . J Anal Toxicol , 25 ( 7 ) : 538 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , B. R. , Dewey , W. L. , Harris , L. S. and Beckner , J. S. 1977 . 3H-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol distribution in pregnant dogs and their fetuses. . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 17 : 457 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Matsunaga , T. , Iwawaki , Y. , Watanabe , K. , Yamamoto , I. , Kageyama , T. and Yoshimura , H. 1995 . Metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by cytochrome P450 isozymes purified from hepatic microsomes of monkeys. . Life Sci , 56 ( 23–24 ) : 2089 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBurney , L. J. , Bobbie , B. A. and Sepp , L. A. 1986 . GC/MS and EMIT analyses for delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites in plasma and urine of human subjects. . J Anal Toxicol , 10 ( 2 ) : 56 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIsaac , W. , Fritchie , G. , Idanpaan-Heikkila , J. , Ho , B. and Englert , L. 1971 . Distribution of marihuana in monkey brain and concomitant behavioural effects. . Nature , 230 ( 5296 ) : 593 – 4 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLeod , A. L. , McKenna , C. J. and Northridge , D. B. 2002 . Myocardial infarction following the combined recreational use of Viagra and cannabis. . Clin Cardiol , 25 ( 3 ) : 133 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mechoulam , R. 1981 . Chemistry of cannabis. . Handbook Exp Pharmacol , 53 : 119 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Merritt , J. C. , Olsen , J. L. , Armstrong , J. R. and McKinnon , S. M. 1981 . Topical delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in hypertensive glaucomas. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 33 ( 1 ) : 40 – 1 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikes , F. , Hofmann , A. and Waser , P. G . 1971 . Identification of (-)-delta 9–6a, 10a-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol and two of its metabolites in rats by use of combination gaschromatography-mass spectrometry and mass fragmentography. . Biochem Pharmacol , 20 ( 9 ) : 2469 – 76 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mittleman , M. A. , Lewis , R. A. , Maclure , M. , Sherwood , J. B. and Muller , J. E. 2001 . Triggering myocardial infarction by marijuana. . Circulation , 103 ( 23 ) : 2805 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mule , S. J. , Lomax , P. and Gross , S. J. 1988 . Active and realistic passive marijuana exposure tested by three immunoassays and GC/MS in urine. . J Anal Toxicol , 12 ( 3 ) : 113 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mura , P. , Kintz , P. , Papet , Y. , Ruesch , G. and Piriou , A. 1999 . Evaluation de six tests rapides pour le depistage du cannabis dans la sueur, la salive et les urines. . Acta Clin Belg , : 35 – 8 . Suppl 1
   Google Scholar
• Monographs , N. N. 2001 . “ Dronabinol capsules 2.5 / 5 or 10 mg (NRF 22.7.); oily dronabinol drops 2.5% (NRF 22.8) ” . In Deutscher Arzneimittel-Codex (DAC), Loose-Leaf Collection of 2001 edited by Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Apothekerverbände Eschborn, , Germany : Govi-Verlag Pharmazeutischer Verlag . /Stuttgart, Germany: Deutscher Apotheker-Verlag
   Google Scholar
• Nakazawa , K. and Costa , E. 1971 . Metabolism of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol by lung and liver homogenates of rats treated with methylcholanthrene. . Nature , 234 ( 5323 ) : 48 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Narimatsu , S. , Watanabe , K. , Matsunaga , T. , Yamamoto , I. , Imaoka , S. , Funae , Y. and Yoshimura , H. 1992 . Cytochrome P-450 isozymes involved in the oxidative metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by liver microsomes of adult female rats. . Drug Metab Dispos , 20 ( 1 ) : 79 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedbala , R. S. , Kardos , K. W. , Fritch , D. F. , Kardos , S. , Fries , T. , Waga , J. , Robb , J. and Cone , E. J. 2001 . Detection of marijuana use by oral fluid and urine analysis following single-dose administration of smoked and oral marijuana. . J Anal Toxicol , 25 ( 5 ) : 289 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Notcutt , W. , Price , M. , Miller , R. , Newport , S. , Sansom , C. and Simmonds , S. 2001 . Medicinal cannabis extracts in chronic pain: (5) cognitive function and blood cannabinoid levels. 2001 Congress on Cannabis and the Cannabinoids 28 Cologne, , Germany : International Association for Cannabis as Medicine .
   Google Scholar
• Nyoni , E. C. , Sitaram , B. R. and Taylor , D. A. 1996 . Determination of delta 9-tetra-hydrocannabinol levels in brain tissue using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. . J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl , 679 ( 1–2 ) : 79 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Wahlen , A. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. K. 1980a . Plasma delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations and clinical effects after oral and intravenous administration and smoking. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 28 ( 3 ) : 409 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Widman , M. , Carlsson , S. , Ryman , T. and Strid , C. 1980b . Plasma and brain levels of delta 6-THC and seven monooxygenated metabolites correlated to the cataleptic effect in the mouse. . Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) , 47 ( 4 ) : 308 – 17 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Wahlen , A. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. K. 1982 . Single dose kinetics of deuterium labelled Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol in heavy and light cannabis users. . Biomed Mass Spectrom , 9 ( 1 ) : 6 – 10 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Andersson , S. , Agurell , S. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. E. 1984 . “ Single dose kinetics of cannabidiol in man. In ” . In The Cannabinoids: Chemical, Pharmacologic, and Therapeutic Aspects Edited by: Agurell , S. , Dewey , W. L. and Willette , R. New York : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Johansson , E. , Lindgren , J. E. , Agurell , S. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. E. 1985 . “ Kinetics of cannabinol in man. In ” . In Marihuana '85 Edited by: Harvey , D. J. Oxford : IRL Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Timmons , M. , Lipton , M. , Davis , K. and Wall , M. 1972 . Intravenous injection in man of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-OH-delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol. . Science , 177 ( 49 ) : 633 – 5 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Simmons , J. , Brine , D. , Kimmel , G. L. , Davis , K. H. and Wall , M. E. 1976 . “ Rate of penetration of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol to the brain of mice. In ” . In Marihuana: Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Cellular Effects Edited by: Nahas , G. G. New York : Springer. .
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. and Wall , M. E. 1982a . Presence of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human milk. . N Engl J Med , 307 : 819 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Di Guiseppi , S. , Davis , K. H. , Schindler , V. H. and Cook , C. E. 1982b . Comparison of effects of marihuana cigarettes to three different potencies. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 31 ( 5 ) : 617 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Di Guiseppi , S. , Mason , A. P. and Davis , K. H. 1983 . Passive inhalation of marihuana smoke and urinary excretion of cannabinoids. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 34 ( 1 ) : 36 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petitet , F. , Jeantaud , B. , Reibaud , M. , Imperato , A. and Dubroeucq , M. C. 1998 . Complex pharmacology of natural cannabinoids: evidence for partial agonist activity of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and antagonist activity of cannabidiol on rat brain cannabinoid receptors. . Life Sci , 63 ( 1 ) PL1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts , J. E. , Neal , J. D. and Gough , T. A. 1992 . Some features of Cannabis plants grown in the United Kingdom from, seeds of known origin. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 44 ( 12 ) : 947 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor , G. T. , Husain , S. and Mitoma , C. 1976 . Acute and subacute interactions between delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other drugs in the rat. . Ann N Y Acad Sci , 281 : 171 – 89 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reid , M. J. and Bornheim , L. M. 2001 . Cannabinoid-induced alterations in brain disposition of drugs of abuse. . Biochem Pharmacol , 61 ( 11 ) : 1357 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbe , H. W.J. 1994 . Influence of marijuana on driving. Maastricht : Institut for Human Psychopharmacology, University of Limburg. .
   Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. , Lemberger , L. , Warrick , P. , Crabtree , R. E. , Sullivan , H. , Rowe , H. and Obermeyer , B. D. 1977 . Physiologic disposition of nabilone, a cannabinol derivative, in man. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 22 ( 1 ) : 85 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryrfeldt , A. , Ramsay , C. H. , Nilsson , I. M. , Widman , M. and Agurell , S. 1973 . Whole-body autoradiography of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol and Δ1(6)-tetrahydrocannabinol in mouse. Pharmacokinetic aspects of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites. . Acta Pharm Suec , 10 ( 1 ) : 13 – 28 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Samara , E. , Bialer , M. and Mechoulam , R. 1988 . Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in dogs. . Drug Metab Dispos , 16 ( 3 ) : 469 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samyn , N. and van Haeren , C. 2000 . On-site testing of saliva and sweat with Drugwipe and determination of concentrations of drugs of abuse in saliva, plasma and urine of suspected users. . Int J Legal Med , 113 ( 3 ) : 150 – 4 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , R. H. , Hayden , G. F. and Riddile , M. 1985 . Laboratory detection of marijuana use. Experience with a photometric immunoassay to measure urinary cannabinoids. . Am J Dis Child , 139 ( 11 ) : 1093 – 6 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• See , G. 1890 . Anwendung der Cannabis indica in der Behandlung der Neurosen und gastrischen Dyspepsieen. . Dtsch Med Wschr , 60 ( 31–34 ) : 771 – 774 . 679–682, 727–730, 748–754
   Google Scholar
• Sporkert , F. , Pragst , F. , Ploner , C. J. , Tschirch , A. and Stadelmann , A. M. 2001 . “ Pharmacokinetic investigation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites after single administration of 10 mg Marinol in attendance of a psychiatric study with 17 volunteers. ” . In Poster at the 39th Annual International Meeting, The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists, Prague, Czech Republic, August 26–30, 2001 62
   Google Scholar
• Steinmeyer , S. , Ohr , H. , Maurer , H. J. and Moeller , M. R. 2001 . Practical aspects of roadside tests for administrative traffic offences in Germany. . Forensic Sci Int , 121 ( 1–2 ) : 33 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Sticht , G. and Käferstein , H. 1998 . “ Grundbegriffe, Toxikokinetik und Toxikodynamik. In ” . In Cannabis im Straßenverkehr Edited by: Berghaus , G. and Krüger , H. P. 1 – 11 . Stuttgart : Gustav Fischer .
   Google Scholar
• Stinchcomb , A. , Challapalli , P. , Harris , K. and Browe , J. 2001 . “ Optimization of in vitro experimental conditions for measuring the percutaneous absorption of Δ9-THC, cannabidiol, and WIN55, 212–2. ” . In 2001 Symposium on the Cannabinoids. Burlington Vermont: International Cannabinoid Research Society 2001, abstr. 161
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. R. , Kau , D. L. and Wood , P. G. 1978 . Pharmacokinetics of nabilone, a psychotropically active 9-ketocannabinoid, in the dog. Utilization of quantitative selected ion monitoring and deuterium labeling. . Biomed Mass Spectrom , 5 ( 4 ) : 296 – 301 .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. R. , Hanasono , G. K. , Miller , W. M. and Wood , P. G. 1987 . Species specificity in the metabolism of nabilone. Relationship between toxicity and metabolic routes. . Xenobiotica , 17 ( 4 ) : 459 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas , B. F. , Compton , D. R. and Martin , B. R. 1990 . Characterization of the lipophilicity of natural and synthetic analogs of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its relationship to pharmacological potency. . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 255 ( 2 ) : 624 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timpone , J. G. , Wright , D. J. , Li , N. , Egorin , M. J. , Enama , M. E. , Mayers , J. , Galetto , G. and the DATRI 004 Study Group . 1997 . The safety and pharmacokinetics of single-agent and combination therapy with megestrol acetate and dronabinol for the treatment of HIV wasting syndrome. . AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses , 13 ( 4 ) : 305 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touitou , E. , Fabin , B. , Dany , S. and Almog , S. 1988a . Transdermal delivery of tetrahydrocannabinol. . Int J Pharm , 43 : 9 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touitou , E. and Fabin , B. 1988b . Altered skin permeation of a highly lipophilic molecule: tetrahydrocannabinol. . Int J Pharm , 43 : 17 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner , C. , ElSohly , M. A. and Boeren , E. 1980 . Constituent of Cannabis sativa L. XVII. A review of the natural constituents. . Journal of Natural Products , 43 ( 2 ) : 169 – 234 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vree , T. B. , Breimer , D. D. , van Ginneken , C. A. and van Rossum , J. M. 1972 . Identification in hashish of tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol analogues with a methyl side-chain. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 24 ( 1 ) : 7 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Wachtel , S. R. , ElSohly , M. A. , Ross , S. A. , Ambre , J. and De Wit , H. 2002 . Comparison of the subjective effects of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and marijuana in humans. . Psychopharmacology , 161 ( 4 ) : 331 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahlqvist , M. , Nilsson , I. M. , Sandberg , F. and Agurell , S. 1970 . Binding of delta-1-tetrahydrocannabinol to human plasma proteins. . Biochem Pharmacol , 19 ( 9 ) : 2579 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. 1971 . The in vivo and in vitro metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol. . Ann N Y Acad Sci , 191 : 23 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. , Brine , D. R. , Pitt , C. G. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1972 . Identification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in man. . J Am Chem Soc , 94 ( 24 ) : 8579 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. , Brine , D. R. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1976 . “ Metabolism of cannabinoids in man. In ” . In Pharmacology of Marihuana Edited by: Braude , M. C. and Szara , S. New York : Raven Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1981 . The metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol and related cannabinoids in man. . J Clin Pharmacol , 21 ( 8–9 Suppl ) 178S-89S
   Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. , Sadler , B. M. , Brine , D. , Taylor , H. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1983 . Metabolism, disposition, and kinetics of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, in men and women. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 34 ( 3 ) : 352 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , K. , Arai , M. , Narimatsu , S. , Yamamoto , I. and Yoshimura , H. 1986 . Effect of repeated administration of 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol, an active metabolite of delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol, on the hepatic microsomal drug-metabolizing enzyme system of mice. . Biochem Pharmacol , 35 ( 11 ) : 1861 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , K. , Arai , M. , Narimatsu , S. , Yamamoto , I. and Yoshimura , H. 1987 . Self-catalyzed inactivation of cytochrome P-450 during microsomal metabolism of cannabidiol. . Biochem Pharmacol , 36 ( 20 ) : 3371 – 7 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , K. , Matsunaga , T. , Yamamoto , I. , Funae , Y. and Yoshimura , H. 1995 . Involvement of CYP2C in the metabolism of cannabinoids by human hepatic microsomes from an old woman. . Biol Pharm Bull , 18 ( 8 ) : 1138 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widman , M. , Agurell , S. , Ehrnebo , M. and Jones , G. 1974 . Binding of (+)- and (-)-Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinols and (-)-7-hydroxy-A1-tetrahydrocannabinol to blood cells and plasma proteins in man. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 26 ( 11 ) : 914 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widman , M. , Nordqvist , M. , Dollery , C. T. and Briant , R. H. 1975 . Metabolism of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol by the isolated perfused dog lung. Comparison with in vitro liver metabolism. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 27 ( 11 ) : 842 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widman , M. , Halldin , M. and Martin , B. 1978 . In vitro metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol by rhesus monkey liver and human liver. . Adv Bio sci , : 22 – 23 . 101–3
   Google Scholar
• Williams , S. J. , Hartley , J. P. and Graham , J. D. 1976 . Bronchodilator effect of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol administered by aerosol of asthmatic patients. . Thorax , 31 ( 6 ) : 720 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , P. L. and Moffat , A. C. 1980 . Identification in human urine of delta 9-tetra-hydrocannabinol-11-oic acid glucuronide: a tetrahydrocannabinol metabolite. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 32 ( 7 ) : 445 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto , I. , Watanabe , K. , Narimatsu , S. and Yoshimura , H. 1995 . Recent advances in the metabolism of cannabinoids. . Int J Biochem Cell Biol , 27 ( 8 ) : 741 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuardi , A. W. , Shirakawa , I. , Finkelfarb , E. and Karniol , I. G. 1982 . Action of cannabidiol on the anxiety and other effects produced by delta 9-THC in normal subjects. . Psychopharmacology , 76 ( 3 ) : 245 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zullino , D. F. , Delessert , D. , Eap , C. B. , Preisig , M. and Baumann , P. 2002 . Tobacco and cannabis smoking cessation can lead to intoxication with clozapine or olanzapine. . Int Clin Psychopharmacol , 17 ( 3 ) : 141 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrams , R. M. , Cook , C. E. , Davis , K. H. , Niederreither , K. , Jaeger , M. J. and Szeto , H. H. 1985–1986 . Plasma delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in pregnant sheep and fetus after inhalation of smoke from a marijuana cigarette. . Alcohol Drug Res , 6 ( 5 ) : 361 – 9 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agurell , S. , Nilsson , I. M. , Ohlsson , A. and Sandberg , F. 1970 . On the metabolism of tritium-labelled, Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rabbit. . Biochem Pharmacol , 19 ( 4 ) : 1333 – 9 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agurell , S. and Leander , K. 1971 . Stability, transfer and absorption of cannabinoid constituents of cannabis (hashish) during smoking. . Acta Pharm Suec , 8 ( 4 ) : 391 – 402 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agurell , S. , Carlsson , S. , Lindgren , J. E. , Ohlsson , A. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. 1981 . Interactions of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol with cannabinol and cannabidiol following oral administration in man. Assay of cannabinol and cannabidiol by mass fragmentography. . Experientia , 37 ( 10 ) : 1090 – 2 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alburges , M. E. and Peat , M. A. 1986 . Profiles of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites in urine of marijuana users: preliminary observations by high performance liquid chromatography-radioimmunoassay. . J Forensic Sci , 31 ( 2 ) : 695 – 706 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alozie , S. O. , Martin , B. R. , Harris , L. S. and Dewey , W. L. 1980 . 3H-delta 9-Tetrahydro-cannabinol, 3H-cannabinol and 3H-cannabidiol: penetration and regional distribution in rat brain. . Pharmacol Biochem Behav , 12 ( 2 ) : 217 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey , J. R. , Cunny , H. C. , Paule , M. G. and Slikker , W. Jr. 1987 . Fetal disposition of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) during late pregnancy in the rhesus monkey. . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 90 ( 2 ) : 315 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker , P. B. , Taylor , B. J. and Gough , T. A. 1981 . The tetrahydrocannabinol and tetra-hydrocannabinolic acid content of cannabis products. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 33 ( 6 ) : 369 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett , G. , Chiang , C. W. , Perez-Reyes , M. and Owens , S. M. 1982 . Kinetic study of smoking marijuana. . J Pharmacokinet Biopharm , 10 ( 5 ) : 495 – 506 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnett , G. , Licko , V. and Thompson , T. 1985 . Behavioral pharmacokinetics of marijuana. . Psychopharmacology , 85 ( 1 ) : 51 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackard , C. and Tennes , K. 1984 . Human placental transfer of cannabinoids. . N Engl J Med , 311 ( 12 ) : 797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornheim , L. M. , Everhart , E. T. , Li , J. and Correia , M. A. 1994 . Induction and genetic regulation of mouse hepatic cytochrome P450 by cannabidiol. . Biochem Pharmacol , 48 ( 1 ) : 161 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornheim , L. M. , Kim , K. Y. , Li , J. , Perotti , B. Y. and Benet , L. Z. 1995 . Effect of cannabidiol pretreatment on the kinetics of tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites in mouse brain. . Drug Metab Dispos , 23 ( 8 ) : 825 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornheim , L. M. and Grillo , M. P. 1998 . Characterization of cytochrome P450 3A in-activation by cannabidiol: possible involvement of cannabidiol-hydroxyquinone as a P450 inactivator. . Chem Res Toxicol , 11 ( 10 ) : 1209 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borys , H. K. and Karler , R. 1979 . Cannabidiol and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolism. In vitro comparison of mouse and rat liver crude microsome preparations. . Biochem Pharmacol , 28 ( 9 ) : 1553 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boskovic , R. , Klein , J. , Woodland , C. , Karaskov , T. and Koren , G. 2001 . The role of the placenta in variability of fetal exposure to cocaine and cannabinoids: a twin study. . Can J Physiol Pharmacol , 79 ( 11 ) : 942 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. 1984 . Psychotrope Drogen. II. Bestimmung der Cannabinoide in Cannabis sativa L. und in Cannabisprodukten mittels Hochdruckflüssigkeitschromatographie (HPLC) . Pharmaceutica Acta Helvetiae , 59 ( 9–10 ) : 247 – 59 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. , Egli , A. , Elsohly , M. A. , Henn , V. and Spiess , Y. 1996 . The effect of orally and rectally administered delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on spasticity: a pilot study with 2 patients. . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther , 34 ( 10 ) : 446 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. 2002 . “ Pharmacokinetics. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Brewster , M. E. , Pop , E. , Foltz , R. L. , Reuschel , S. , Griffith , W. , Amselem , S. and Biegon , A. 1997 . Clinical pharmacokinetics of escalating i.v. doses of dexanabinol (HU-211), a neuroprotectant agent, in normal volunteers . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther , 35 ( 9 ) : 361 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chao , F. C. , Green , D. E. , Forrest , I. S. , Kaplan , J. N. , Winship-Ball , A. and Braude , M. 1976 . The passage of 14C-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol into the milk of lactating squirrel monkeys. . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 15 ( 2 ) : 303 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Chiang , C. N. and Rapaka , R. S. 1987 . Pharmacokinetics and disposition of cannabinoids. . NIDA Res Monogr , 79 : 173 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Chiang , C. W. , Barnett , G. and Brine , D. 1983 . Systemic absorption of delta 9-tetra-hydrocannabinol after ophthalmic administration to the rabbit. . J Pharm Sci , 72 ( 2 ) : 136 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiang , C. W. and Barnett , G. 1984 . Marijuana effect and delta-9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol plasma level. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 36 ( 2 ) : 234 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cocchetto , D. M. , Owens , S. M. , Perez-Reyes , M. , DiGuiseppi , S. and Miller , L. L. 1981 . Relationship between plasma delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentration and pharmacologic effects in man. . Psychopharmacology , 75 ( 2 ) : 158 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , E. J. and Johnson , R. E. 1986 . Contact highs and urinary cannabinoid excretion after passive exposure to marijuana smoke. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 40 ( 3 ) : 247 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , E. J. , Johnson , R. E. , Darwin , W. D. , Yousefnejad , D. , Mell , L. D. , Paul , B. D. and Mitchell , J. 1987 . Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke: urinalysis and room air levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . J Anal Toxicol , 11 ( 3 ) : 89 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , E. J. and Huestis , M. A. 1993 . Relating blood concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites to pharmacologic effects and time of marijuana usage. . Ther Drug Monit , 15 ( 6 ) : 527 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Consroe , P. , Laguna , J. , Allender , J. , Snider , S. , Stern , L. , Sandyk , R. , Kennedy , K. and Schram , K. 1991 . Controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol in Huntington's disease. . Pharmacol Biochem Behav , 40 ( 3 ) : 701 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa , B. , Parolaro , D. and Colleoni , M. 1996 . Chronic cannabinoid, CP-55, 940, administration alters biotransformation in the rat. . Eur J Pharmacol , 313 ( 1–2 ) : 17 – 24 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Daldrup , Th. , Thompson , T. and Reidenbach , G. 1988 . “ Cannabiskonsum-Nachweis-barkeitsdauer, zeitlicher Verlauf, forensische Bedeutung. In ” . In Suchtkrankheiten, Diagnose, Therapie und analytischer Nachweis Edited by: Arnold , W. , Poser , W. E. and Müller , M. R. Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag. .
   Google Scholar
• Daldrup , Th . 1996 . Cannabis im Straßenverkehr. Final report commissioned by the Ministry of Economy, Technology and Traffic of North Rhine-Westphalia. Düsseldorf : University of Düsseldorf. .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , K. H. , McDaniell , J. A. , Cadwell , L. W. and Moody , P. L. 1984 . “ Some smoking characteristics of marijuana cigarettes. In ” . In The Cannabinoids: Chemical, Pharmacologic and Therapeutic Aspects Edited by: Agurell , S. , Dewey , W. L. and Willette , R. E. New York : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Dewey , W. L. 1986 . Cannabinoid pharmacology. . Pharmacol Rev , 38 ( 2 ) : 151 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , G. M. Jr. , Mann , M. A. , Judson , B. A. , Schramm , N. T. and Tashchian , A. 1985 . Excretion patterns of cannabinoid metabolites after last use in a group of chronic users. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 38 ( 5 ) : 572 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. , Stanford , D. F. , Harland , E. C. , Hikal , A. H. , Walker , L. A. , Little , T. L. Jr. , Rider , J. N. and Jones , A. B. 1991 . Rectal bioavailability of delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol from the hemisuccinate ester in monkeys. . J Pharm Sci , 80 ( 10 ) : 942 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. , Ross , S. A. , Mehmedic , Z. , Arafat , R. , Yi , B. and Banahan , B. F. 2000 . Potency trends of Δ9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980–1997. . J Forensic Sci , 45 ( 1 ) : 24 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. 2002 . “ Chemical constituents of cannabis. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Fairbairn , J. W. , Liebmann , J. A. and Rowan , M. G. 1976 . The stability of cannabis and its preparations on storage. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 28 ( 1 ) : 1 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehr , K. O. and Kalant , H. 1974 . Fate of 14C-delta1-THC in rat plasma after intravenous injection and smoking. . Eur J Pharmacol , 25 ( 1 ) : 1 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Frytak , S. , Moertel , C. G. and Rubin , J. 1984 . Metabolic studies of delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol in cancer patients. . Cancer Treat Rep , 68 ( 12 ) : 1427 – 31 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garrett , E. R. and Hunt , C. A. Physiochemical properties, solubility, and protein binding of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . J Pharm Sci , 63 ( 7 ) 1056 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Garriott , J. C. , Di Maio , V. J. and Rodriguez , R. G. 1986 . Detection of cannabinoids in homicide victims and motor vehicle fatalities. . J Forensic Sci , 31 ( 4 ) : 1274 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill , E. W. and Jones , G. 1972 . Brain levels of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in mice—correlation with behaviour, and the effect of the metabolic inhibitors SKF 525A and piperonyl butoxide. . Biochem Pharmacol , 21 ( 16 ) : 2237 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Gronholm , M. and Lillsunde , P. 2001 . A comparison between on-site immunoassay drug-testing devices and laboratory results. . Forensic Sci Int , 121 ( 1–2 ) : 37 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen , F. 2001 . “ Grenzwertmodelle zur Bestimmung der Fahrtüchtigkeit und Messverfahren ” . Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Karus , M. Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag. . Cannabiskonsum, Straßenverker und Arbeitswelt [Cannabis use, driving and workplace]
   Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen , F. 2002a . “ Practical hints. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen , F. 2002b . “ Review of unwanted actions of Cannabis and THC. In ” . In Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. and Russo , E. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Guy , G. W. and Flint , M. E. 2000 . “ A phase one study of sublingual Cannabis based medicinal extracts. ” . In 2000 Symposium on the Cannabinoids 115 Burlington, VT : International Cannabinoid Research Society .
   Google Scholar
• Haggerty , G. C. , Deskin , R. , Kurtz , P. J. , Fentiman , A. F. and Leighty , E. G. 1986 . The pharmacological activity of the fatty acid conjugate 11-palmitoyloxy-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 84 ( 3 ) : 599 – 606 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halldin , M. M. , Andersson , L. K. , Widman , M. and Hollister , L. E. 1982b . Further urinary metabolites of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Arzneimittelforschung , 32 ( 9 ) : 1135 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halldin , M. M. , Carlsson , S. , Kanter , S. L. , Widman , M. and Agurell , S. 1982a . Urinary metabolites of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Arzneimittelforschung , 32 ( 7 ) : 764 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. , Buonarati , M. , Baselt , R. , Wade , N. , Yep , C. , Biasotti , A. , Reeve , V. , Wong , A. and Orbanowsky , M. 1983 . Comparison of 3H- and 125I-Radioimmunoassay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for the determination of Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol and cannabinoids in blood and serum. . J Anal Toxicol , 7 ( 2 ) : 96 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harder , S. and Rietbrock , S. 1997 . Concentration-effect relationship of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabiol and prediction of psychotropic effects after smoking marijuana. . Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther , 35 ( 4 ) : 155 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. 1976 . Characterization of the butyl homologues of delta1-tetrahydro-cannabinol, cannabinol and cannabidiol in samples of cannabis by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 28 ( 4 ) : 280 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. and Paton , W. D.M. 1976 . “ Examination of the metabolites of Δ1-tetra-hydrocannabinol in mouse, liver, heart and lung by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In ” . In Marihuana: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Cellular Effects Edited by: Nahas , G. G. New York : Springer-Verlag. .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. , Leuschner , J. T. and Paton , W. D. 1982 . Gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric studies on the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of delta 1-tetra-hydrocannabinol in the rabbit. . J Chromatogr , 239 : 243 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. 1984 . “ Chemistry, metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the cannabinoids. In ” . In Marihuana in Science and Medicine Edited by: Nahas , G. New York : Raven Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. and Mechoulam , R. 1990 . Metabolites of cannabidiol identified in human urine. . Xenobiotica , 20 ( 3 ) : 303 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. 1991 . “ Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the cannabinoids. In ” . In Biochemistry and Physiology of Substance Abuse Edited by: Watson , R. R. Volume III , Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , D. J. and Brown , N. K. 1991 . Comparative in vitro metabolism of the cannabinoids. . Pharmacol Biochem Behav , 40 ( 3 ) : 533 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho , B. T. , Fritchie , G. E. , Kralik , P. M. , Englert , L. F. , McIsaac , W. M. and Idanpaan-Heikkila , J. 1970 . Distribution of tritiated-1 delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rat tissues after inhalation. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 22 ( 7 ) : 538 – 9 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollister , L. E. 1974 . Structure-activity relationships in man of cannabis constituents, and homologs and metabolites of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. . Pharmacology , 11 ( 1 ) : 3 – 11 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. 1975 . Interactions in man of delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol. II. Cannabinol and cannabidiol. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 18 ( 1 ) : 80 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister , L. E. , Gillespie , H. K. , Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Wahlen , A. and Agurell , S. 1981 . Do plasma concentrations of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol reflect the degree of intoxication? . J Clin Pharmacol , 21 ( 8–9 Suppl ) 171S-7S
   Google Scholar
• Huestis , M. A. , Henningfield , J. E. and Cone , E. J. 1992a . Blood cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and formation of 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH during and after smoking marijuana. . J Anal Toxicol , 16 ( 5 ) : 276 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis , M. A. , Henningfield , J. E. and Cone , E. J. 1992b . Blood cannabinoids. II. Models for the prediction of time of marijuana exposure from plasma concentrations of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta 9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol (THCCOOH). . J Anal Toxicol , 16 ( 5 ) : 283 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis , M. A. and Cone , E. J. 1998 . Urinary excretion half-life of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans. . Ther Drug Monit , 20 ( 5 ) : 570 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt , C. A. and Jones , R. T. 1980 . Tolerance and disposition of tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 215 ( 1 ) : 35 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt , C. A. , Jones , R. T. , Herning , R. I. and Bachman , J. 1981 . Evidence that cannabidiol does not significantly alter the pharmacokinetics of tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . J Pharmacokinet Biopharm , 9 ( 3 ) : 245 – 60 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hutchings , D. E. , Martin , B. R. , Gamagaris , Z. , Miller , N. and Fico , T. 1989 . Plasma concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in dams and fetuses following acute or multiple prenatal dosing in rats. . Life Sci , 44 ( 11 ) : 697 – 701 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeger , W. , Benet , L. Z. and Bornheim , L. M. 1996 . Inhibition of cyclosporine and tetrahydrocannabinol metabolism by cannabidiol in mouse and human microsomes. . Xenobiotica , 26 ( 3 ) : 275 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. , Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Agurell , S. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. E. 1987 . Single-dose kinetics of deuterium-labelled cannabinol in man after intravenous administration and smoking. . Biomed Environ Mass Spectrom , 14 ( 9 ) : 495 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. and Halldin , M. M. 1989 . Urinary excretion half-life of delta 1-tetra-hydrocannabinol-7-oic acid in heavy marijuana users after smoking. . J Anal Toxicol , 13 ( 4 ) : 218 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. , Halldin , M. M. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. K. 1989a . Terminal elimination plasma half-life of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 1-THC) in heavy users of marijuana. . Eur J Clin Pharmacol , 37 ( 3 ) : 273 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , E. , Noren , K. , Sjovall , J. and Halldin , M. M. 1989b . Determination of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in human fat biopsies from marihuana users by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. . Biomed Chromatogr , 3 ( 1 ) : 35 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , J. R. , Jennison , T. A. , Peat , M. A. and Foltz , R. L. 1984 . Stability of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC in blood and plasma. . J Anal Toxicol , 8 ( 5 ) : 202 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karniol , I. G. , Shirakawa , I. , Kasinski , N. , Pfeferman , A. and Carlini , E. A. 1974 . Cannabidiol interferes with the effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Eur J Pharmacol , 28 ( 1 ) : 172 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , P. and Jones , R. T. 1992 . Metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol in frequent and infrequent marijuana users. . J Anal Toxicol , 16 ( 4 ) : 228 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , T. H. , Foltin , R. W. , Emurian , C. S. and Fischman , M. W. 1993 . Performance-based testing for drugs of abuse: dose and time profiles of marijuana, amphetamine, alcohol, and diazepam. . J Anal Toxicol , 17 ( 5 ) : 264 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kintz , P. , Cirimele , V. and Ludes , B. 2000 . Detection of cannabis in oral fluid (saliva) and forehead wipes (sweat) from impaired drivers. . J Anal Toxicol , 24 ( 7 ) : 557 – 61 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kommission Deutscher Arzneimittel-Codex. 2001 . “ Monograph: Dronabinol ” . In Deutscher Arzneimittel-Codex (DAC), Loose-Leaf Collection of 2001 edited by Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Apothekerverbände Eschborn, , Germany : Govi-Verlag Pharmazeutischer Verlag . /Stuttgart, Germany: Deutscher Apotheker-Verlag
   Google Scholar
• Kosel , B. W. , Aweeka , F. T. , Benowitz , N. L. , Shade , S. B. , Hilton , J. F. , Lizak , P. S. and Abrams , D. I. 2002 . The effects of cannabinoids on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir and nelfinavir. . AIDS , 16 ( 4 ) : 543 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuz , D. S. and Axelrod , J. 1973 . Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: localization in body fat. . Science , 179 ( 71 ) : 391 – 3 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Law , B. , Mason , P. A. , Moffat , A. C. , Gleadle , R. I. and King , L. J. 1984 . Forensic aspects of the metabolism and excretion of cannabinoids following oral ingestion of cannabis resin. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 36 ( 5 ) : 289 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law , B. and Moffat , A. C. 1985 . “ Marijuana '84 ” . In Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Cannabis Edited by: Harvey , D. J. Oxford : IRL Press Limited. .
   Google Scholar
• Leighty , E. G. 1973 . Metabolism and distribution of cannabinoids in rats after different methods of administration. . Biochem Pharmacol , 22 ( 13 ) : 1613 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Leighty , E. G. , Fentiman , A. F. Jr. and Foltz , R. L. 1976 . Long-retained metabolites of Δ9- and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinols identified as novel fatty acid conjugates. . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 14 ( 1 ) : 13 – 28 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Silberstein , S. D. , Axelrod , J. and Kopin , I. J. 1970 . Marihuana: studies on the disposition and metabolism of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. . Science , 170 ( 964 ) : 1320 – 2 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Tamarkin , N. R. , Axelrod , J. and Kopin , I. J. 1971 . Delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol: metabolism and disposition in long-term marihuana smokers. . Science , 173 ( 991 ) : 72 – 4 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Weiss , J. L. , Watanabe , A. M. , Galanter , I. M. , Wyatt , R. J. and Cardon , P. V. 1972 . Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Temporal correlation of the psychologic effects and blood levels after various routes of administration. . N Engl J Med , 286 ( 13 ) : 685 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Lemberger , L. , Rubin , A. , Wolen , R. , DeSante , K. , Rowe , H. , Forney , R. and Pence , P. 1982 . Pharmacokinetics, metabolism and drug-abuse potential of nabilone. . Cancer Treat Rev , 9 ( Suppl B ) : 17 – 23 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leuschner , J. T. , Harvey , D. J. , Bullingham , R. E. and Paton , W. D. 1986 . Pharmacokinetics of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rabbits following single or multiple intravenous doses. . Drug Metab Dispos , 4 ( 2 ) : 230 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Lichtman , A. H. , Peart , J. , Poklis , J. L. , Bridgen , D. T. , Razdan , R. K. , Wilson , D. M. , Poklis , A. , Meng , Y. , Byron , P. R. and Martin , B. R. 2000 . Pharmacological evaluation of aerosolized cannabinoids in mice. . Eur J Pharmacol , 399 ( 2–3 ) : 141 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindgren , J. E. , Ohlsson , A. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. and Gillespie , H. 1981 . Clinical effects and plasma levels of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 9-THC) in heavy and light users of cannabis. . Psychopharmacology , 74 ( 3 ) : 208 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magerl , H. , Wiegand , C. and Schulz , E. 1987 . Cannabinoid-Aufnahme durch Passivrauchen. . Arch Kriminol , 179 ( 1–2 ) : 31 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Manno , J. E. , Manno , B. R. , Kemp , P. M. , Alford , D. D. , Abukhalaf , I. K. , McWilliams , M. E. , Hagaman , F. N. and Fitzgerald , M. J. 2001 . Temporal indication of marijuana use can be estimated from plasma and urine concentrations of Δ9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol, 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocanna-binol-9-carboxylic acid. . J Anal Toxicol , 25 ( 7 ) : 538 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , B. R. , Dewey , W. L. , Harris , L. S. and Beckner , J. S. 1977 . 3H-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol distribution in pregnant dogs and their fetuses. . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 17 : 457 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Matsunaga , T. , Iwawaki , Y. , Watanabe , K. , Yamamoto , I. , Kageyama , T. and Yoshimura , H. 1995 . Metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by cytochrome P450 isozymes purified from hepatic microsomes of monkeys. . Life Sci , 56 ( 23–24 ) : 2089 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBurney , L. J. , Bobbie , B. A. and Sepp , L. A. 1986 . GC/MS and EMIT analyses for delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites in plasma and urine of human subjects. . J Anal Toxicol , 10 ( 2 ) : 56 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIsaac , W. , Fritchie , G. , Idanpaan-Heikkila , J. , Ho , B. and Englert , L. 1971 . Distribution of marihuana in monkey brain and concomitant behavioural effects. . Nature , 230 ( 5296 ) : 593 – 4 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLeod , A. L. , McKenna , C. J. and Northridge , D. B. 2002 . Myocardial infarction following the combined recreational use of Viagra and cannabis. . Clin Cardiol , 25 ( 3 ) : 133 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mechoulam , R. 1981 . Chemistry of cannabis. . Handbook Exp Pharmacol , 53 : 119 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Merritt , J. C. , Olsen , J. L. , Armstrong , J. R. and McKinnon , S. M. 1981 . Topical delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in hypertensive glaucomas. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 33 ( 1 ) : 40 – 1 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikes , F. , Hofmann , A. and Waser , P. G . 1971 . Identification of (-)-delta 9–6a, 10a-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol and two of its metabolites in rats by use of combination gaschromatography-mass spectrometry and mass fragmentography. . Biochem Pharmacol , 20 ( 9 ) : 2469 – 76 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mittleman , M. A. , Lewis , R. A. , Maclure , M. , Sherwood , J. B. and Muller , J. E. 2001 . Triggering myocardial infarction by marijuana. . Circulation , 103 ( 23 ) : 2805 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mule , S. J. , Lomax , P. and Gross , S. J. 1988 . Active and realistic passive marijuana exposure tested by three immunoassays and GC/MS in urine. . J Anal Toxicol , 12 ( 3 ) : 113 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mura , P. , Kintz , P. , Papet , Y. , Ruesch , G. and Piriou , A. 1999 . Evaluation de six tests rapides pour le depistage du cannabis dans la sueur, la salive et les urines. . Acta Clin Belg , : 35 – 8 . Suppl 1
   Google Scholar
• Monographs , N. N. 2001 . “ Dronabinol capsules 2.5 / 5 or 10 mg (NRF 22.7.); oily dronabinol drops 2.5% (NRF 22.8) ” . In Deutscher Arzneimittel-Codex (DAC), Loose-Leaf Collection of 2001 edited by Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Apothekerverbände Eschborn, , Germany : Govi-Verlag Pharmazeutischer Verlag . /Stuttgart, Germany: Deutscher Apotheker-Verlag
   Google Scholar
• Nakazawa , K. and Costa , E. 1971 . Metabolism of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol by lung and liver homogenates of rats treated with methylcholanthrene. . Nature , 234 ( 5323 ) : 48 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Narimatsu , S. , Watanabe , K. , Matsunaga , T. , Yamamoto , I. , Imaoka , S. , Funae , Y. and Yoshimura , H. 1992 . Cytochrome P-450 isozymes involved in the oxidative metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by liver microsomes of adult female rats. . Drug Metab Dispos , 20 ( 1 ) : 79 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedbala , R. S. , Kardos , K. W. , Fritch , D. F. , Kardos , S. , Fries , T. , Waga , J. , Robb , J. and Cone , E. J. 2001 . Detection of marijuana use by oral fluid and urine analysis following single-dose administration of smoked and oral marijuana. . J Anal Toxicol , 25 ( 5 ) : 289 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Notcutt , W. , Price , M. , Miller , R. , Newport , S. , Sansom , C. and Simmonds , S. 2001 . Medicinal cannabis extracts in chronic pain: (5) cognitive function and blood cannabinoid levels. 2001 Congress on Cannabis and the Cannabinoids 28 Cologne, , Germany : International Association for Cannabis as Medicine .
   Google Scholar
• Nyoni , E. C. , Sitaram , B. R. and Taylor , D. A. 1996 . Determination of delta 9-tetra-hydrocannabinol levels in brain tissue using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. . J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl , 679 ( 1–2 ) : 79 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Wahlen , A. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. K. 1980a . Plasma delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations and clinical effects after oral and intravenous administration and smoking. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 28 ( 3 ) : 409 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Widman , M. , Carlsson , S. , Ryman , T. and Strid , C. 1980b . Plasma and brain levels of delta 6-THC and seven monooxygenated metabolites correlated to the cataleptic effect in the mouse. . Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) , 47 ( 4 ) : 308 – 17 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Wahlen , A. , Agurell , S. , Hollister , L. E. and Gillespie , H. K. 1982 . Single dose kinetics of deuterium labelled Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol in heavy and light cannabis users. . Biomed Mass Spectrom , 9 ( 1 ) : 6 – 10 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Lindgren , J. E. , Andersson , S. , Agurell , S. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. E. 1984 . “ Single dose kinetics of cannabidiol in man. In ” . In The Cannabinoids: Chemical, Pharmacologic, and Therapeutic Aspects Edited by: Agurell , S. , Dewey , W. L. and Willette , R. New York : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , A. , Johansson , E. , Lindgren , J. E. , Agurell , S. , Gillespie , H. and Hollister , L. E. 1985 . “ Kinetics of cannabinol in man. In ” . In Marihuana '85 Edited by: Harvey , D. J. Oxford : IRL Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Timmons , M. , Lipton , M. , Davis , K. and Wall , M. 1972 . Intravenous injection in man of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-OH-delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol. . Science , 177 ( 49 ) : 633 – 5 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Simmons , J. , Brine , D. , Kimmel , G. L. , Davis , K. H. and Wall , M. E. 1976 . “ Rate of penetration of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol to the brain of mice. In ” . In Marihuana: Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Cellular Effects Edited by: Nahas , G. G. New York : Springer. .
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. and Wall , M. E. 1982a . Presence of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human milk. . N Engl J Med , 307 : 819 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Di Guiseppi , S. , Davis , K. H. , Schindler , V. H. and Cook , C. E. 1982b . Comparison of effects of marihuana cigarettes to three different potencies. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 31 ( 5 ) : 617 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes , M. , Di Guiseppi , S. , Mason , A. P. and Davis , K. H. 1983 . Passive inhalation of marihuana smoke and urinary excretion of cannabinoids. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 34 ( 1 ) : 36 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petitet , F. , Jeantaud , B. , Reibaud , M. , Imperato , A. and Dubroeucq , M. C. 1998 . Complex pharmacology of natural cannabinoids: evidence for partial agonist activity of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and antagonist activity of cannabidiol on rat brain cannabinoid receptors. . Life Sci , 63 ( 1 ) PL1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts , J. E. , Neal , J. D. and Gough , T. A. 1992 . Some features of Cannabis plants grown in the United Kingdom from, seeds of known origin. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 44 ( 12 ) : 947 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor , G. T. , Husain , S. and Mitoma , C. 1976 . Acute and subacute interactions between delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other drugs in the rat. . Ann N Y Acad Sci , 281 : 171 – 89 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reid , M. J. and Bornheim , L. M. 2001 . Cannabinoid-induced alterations in brain disposition of drugs of abuse. . Biochem Pharmacol , 61 ( 11 ) : 1357 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbe , H. W.J. 1994 . Influence of marijuana on driving. Maastricht : Institut for Human Psychopharmacology, University of Limburg. .
   Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. , Lemberger , L. , Warrick , P. , Crabtree , R. E. , Sullivan , H. , Rowe , H. and Obermeyer , B. D. 1977 . Physiologic disposition of nabilone, a cannabinol derivative, in man. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 22 ( 1 ) : 85 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryrfeldt , A. , Ramsay , C. H. , Nilsson , I. M. , Widman , M. and Agurell , S. 1973 . Whole-body autoradiography of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol and Δ1(6)-tetrahydrocannabinol in mouse. Pharmacokinetic aspects of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites. . Acta Pharm Suec , 10 ( 1 ) : 13 – 28 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Samara , E. , Bialer , M. and Mechoulam , R. 1988 . Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in dogs. . Drug Metab Dispos , 16 ( 3 ) : 469 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samyn , N. and van Haeren , C. 2000 . On-site testing of saliva and sweat with Drugwipe and determination of concentrations of drugs of abuse in saliva, plasma and urine of suspected users. . Int J Legal Med , 113 ( 3 ) : 150 – 4 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , R. H. , Hayden , G. F. and Riddile , M. 1985 . Laboratory detection of marijuana use. Experience with a photometric immunoassay to measure urinary cannabinoids. . Am J Dis Child , 139 ( 11 ) : 1093 – 6 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• See , G. 1890 . Anwendung der Cannabis indica in der Behandlung der Neurosen und gastrischen Dyspepsieen. . Dtsch Med Wschr , 60 ( 31–34 ) : 771 – 774 . 679–682, 727–730, 748–754
   Google Scholar
• Sporkert , F. , Pragst , F. , Ploner , C. J. , Tschirch , A. and Stadelmann , A. M. 2001 . “ Pharmacokinetic investigation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites after single administration of 10 mg Marinol in attendance of a psychiatric study with 17 volunteers. ” . In Poster at the 39th Annual International Meeting, The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists, Prague, Czech Republic, August 26–30, 2001 62
   Google Scholar
• Steinmeyer , S. , Ohr , H. , Maurer , H. J. and Moeller , M. R. 2001 . Practical aspects of roadside tests for administrative traffic offences in Germany. . Forensic Sci Int , 121 ( 1–2 ) : 33 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Sticht , G. and Käferstein , H. 1998 . “ Grundbegriffe, Toxikokinetik und Toxikodynamik. In ” . In Cannabis im Straßenverkehr Edited by: Berghaus , G. and Krüger , H. P. 1 – 11 . Stuttgart : Gustav Fischer .
   Google Scholar
• Stinchcomb , A. , Challapalli , P. , Harris , K. and Browe , J. 2001 . “ Optimization of in vitro experimental conditions for measuring the percutaneous absorption of Δ9-THC, cannabidiol, and WIN55, 212–2. ” . In 2001 Symposium on the Cannabinoids. Burlington Vermont: International Cannabinoid Research Society 2001, abstr. 161
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. R. , Kau , D. L. and Wood , P. G. 1978 . Pharmacokinetics of nabilone, a psychotropically active 9-ketocannabinoid, in the dog. Utilization of quantitative selected ion monitoring and deuterium labeling. . Biomed Mass Spectrom , 5 ( 4 ) : 296 – 301 .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. R. , Hanasono , G. K. , Miller , W. M. and Wood , P. G. 1987 . Species specificity in the metabolism of nabilone. Relationship between toxicity and metabolic routes. . Xenobiotica , 17 ( 4 ) : 459 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas , B. F. , Compton , D. R. and Martin , B. R. 1990 . Characterization of the lipophilicity of natural and synthetic analogs of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its relationship to pharmacological potency. . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 255 ( 2 ) : 624 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timpone , J. G. , Wright , D. J. , Li , N. , Egorin , M. J. , Enama , M. E. , Mayers , J. , Galetto , G. and the DATRI 004 Study Group . 1997 . The safety and pharmacokinetics of single-agent and combination therapy with megestrol acetate and dronabinol for the treatment of HIV wasting syndrome. . AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses , 13 ( 4 ) : 305 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touitou , E. , Fabin , B. , Dany , S. and Almog , S. 1988a . Transdermal delivery of tetrahydrocannabinol. . Int J Pharm , 43 : 9 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touitou , E. and Fabin , B. 1988b . Altered skin permeation of a highly lipophilic molecule: tetrahydrocannabinol. . Int J Pharm , 43 : 17 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner , C. , ElSohly , M. A. and Boeren , E. 1980 . Constituent of Cannabis sativa L. XVII. A review of the natural constituents. . Journal of Natural Products , 43 ( 2 ) : 169 – 234 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vree , T. B. , Breimer , D. D. , van Ginneken , C. A. and van Rossum , J. M. 1972 . Identification in hashish of tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol analogues with a methyl side-chain. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 24 ( 1 ) : 7 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Wachtel , S. R. , ElSohly , M. A. , Ross , S. A. , Ambre , J. and De Wit , H. 2002 . Comparison of the subjective effects of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and marijuana in humans. . Psychopharmacology , 161 ( 4 ) : 331 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahlqvist , M. , Nilsson , I. M. , Sandberg , F. and Agurell , S. 1970 . Binding of delta-1-tetrahydrocannabinol to human plasma proteins. . Biochem Pharmacol , 19 ( 9 ) : 2579 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. 1971 . The in vivo and in vitro metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol. . Ann N Y Acad Sci , 191 : 23 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. , Brine , D. R. , Pitt , C. G. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1972 . Identification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in man. . J Am Chem Soc , 94 ( 24 ) : 8579 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. , Brine , D. R. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1976 . “ Metabolism of cannabinoids in man. In ” . In Pharmacology of Marihuana Edited by: Braude , M. C. and Szara , S. New York : Raven Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1981 . The metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol and related cannabinoids in man. . J Clin Pharmacol , 21 ( 8–9 Suppl ) 178S-89S
   Google Scholar
• Wall , M. E. , Sadler , B. M. , Brine , D. , Taylor , H. and Perez-Reyes , M. 1983 . Metabolism, disposition, and kinetics of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, in men and women. . Clin Pharmacol Ther , 34 ( 3 ) : 352 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , K. , Arai , M. , Narimatsu , S. , Yamamoto , I. and Yoshimura , H. 1986 . Effect of repeated administration of 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol, an active metabolite of delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol, on the hepatic microsomal drug-metabolizing enzyme system of mice. . Biochem Pharmacol , 35 ( 11 ) : 1861 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , K. , Arai , M. , Narimatsu , S. , Yamamoto , I. and Yoshimura , H. 1987 . Self-catalyzed inactivation of cytochrome P-450 during microsomal metabolism of cannabidiol. . Biochem Pharmacol , 36 ( 20 ) : 3371 – 7 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , K. , Matsunaga , T. , Yamamoto , I. , Funae , Y. and Yoshimura , H. 1995 . Involvement of CYP2C in the metabolism of cannabinoids by human hepatic microsomes from an old woman. . Biol Pharm Bull , 18 ( 8 ) : 1138 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widman , M. , Agurell , S. , Ehrnebo , M. and Jones , G. 1974 . Binding of (+)- and (-)-Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinols and (-)-7-hydroxy-A1-tetrahydrocannabinol to blood cells and plasma proteins in man. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 26 ( 11 ) : 914 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widman , M. , Nordqvist , M. , Dollery , C. T. and Briant , R. H. 1975 . Metabolism of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol by the isolated perfused dog lung. Comparison with in vitro liver metabolism. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 27 ( 11 ) : 842 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widman , M. , Halldin , M. and Martin , B. 1978 . In vitro metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol by rhesus monkey liver and human liver. . Adv Bio sci , : 22 – 23 . 101–3
   Google Scholar
• Williams , S. J. , Hartley , J. P. and Graham , J. D. 1976 . Bronchodilator effect of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol administered by aerosol of asthmatic patients. . Thorax , 31 ( 6 ) : 720 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , P. L. and Moffat , A. C. 1980 . Identification in human urine of delta 9-tetra-hydrocannabinol-11-oic acid glucuronide: a tetrahydrocannabinol metabolite. . J Pharm Pharmacol , 32 ( 7 ) : 445 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto , I. , Watanabe , K. , Narimatsu , S. and Yoshimura , H. 1995 . Recent advances in the metabolism of cannabinoids. . Int J Biochem Cell Biol , 27 ( 8 ) : 741 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuardi , A. W. , Shirakawa , I. , Finkelfarb , E. and Karniol , I. G. 1982 . Action of cannabidiol on the anxiety and other effects produced by delta 9-THC in normal subjects. . Psychopharmacology , 76 ( 3 ) : 245 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zullino , D. F. , Delessert , D. , Eap , C. B. , Preisig , M. and Baumann , P. 2002 . Tobacco and cannabis smoking cessation can lead to intoxication with clozapine or olanzapine. . Int Clin Psychopharmacol , 17 ( 3 ) : 141 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar