Publication Cover
Journal of Dual Diagnosis
research and practice in substance abuse comorbidity
Volume 1, 2005 - Issue 2
183
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REGULAR ARTICLES

Schizophrenia and Substance Abuse Co-Morbidity

A Role for Dopamine Sensitization?

, , , , , & show all
Pages 11-40 | Published online: 20 Nov 2008

References

  • Blanchard , J. J. , Brown , S. A. , Horan , W. P. and Sherwood , A. R. 2000 . Substance use disorders in schizophrenia: Review, integration, and a proposed model . Clin Psychol Rev. , 20 ( 2 ) : 207 – 34 .
  • Robins , L. N. and Reiger , D. A. 1991 . Psychiatric disorders in America: The Epidemiological Catchment Area Study , Edited by: Robins , L. N. and Reiger , D. A. New York : Free Press .
  • Regier , D. A. , Farmer , M. E. Rae , D. S. 1990 . Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study . JAMA , 264 ( 19 ) : 2511 – 8 .
  • Modestin , J. , Nussbaumer , C. , Angst , K. , Scheidegger , P. and Hell , D. 1997 . Use of potentially abusive psychotropic substances in psychiatric inpatients . Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. , 247 ( 3 ) : 146 – 53 .
  • Cassano , G. B. , Pini , S. , Saettoni , M. , Rucci , P. and Dell'Osso , L. 1998 . Occurrence and clinical correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in patients with psychotic disorders . J Clin Psychiatry. , 59 ( 2 ) : 60 – 8 .
  • Menezes , P. R. , Johnson , S. Thornicroft , G. 1996 . Drug and alcohol problems among individuals with severe mental illness in south London . Br J Psychiatry. , 168 ( 5 ) : 612 – 9 .
  • Jablensky , A. , McGrath , J. Herrman , H. 2000 . Psychotic disorders in urban areas: An overview of the Study on Low Prevalence Disorders . Aust N Z J Psychiatry. , 34 ( 2 ) : 221 – 36 .
  • Fowler , I. L. , Carr , V. J. , Carter , N. T. and Lewin , T. J. 1998 . Patterns of current and lifetime substance use in schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull. , 24 ( 3 ) : 443 – 55 .
  • Johns , L. C. , Cannon , M. Singleton , N. The prevalence and correlates of self-reported psychotic symptoms in the British population (In submission)
  • Murray , R. M. , Grech , A. , Phillips , P. and Johnson , S. 2002 . “ What is the relationship between substance abuse and schizophrenia? ” . In The epidemiology of schizophrenia , Edited by: Murray , R. , Jones , P. , Susser , E. , van Os , J. and Cannon , M. 317 – 342 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Miller , N. S. and Guttman , J. C. 1997 . The integration of pharmacological therapy for comorbid psychiatric and addictive disorders . J Psychoactive Drugs. , 29 ( 3 ) : 249 – 54 .
  • Stimmel , G. L. 1996 . Benzodiazepines in schizophrenia . Pharmacotherapy. , 16 ( 6Pt 2 ) : 148S – 151S . discussion 166S-168S
  • Phillips , P. and Johnson , S. 2001 . How does drug and alcohol misuse develop among people with psychotic illness? Aliterature review . Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. ,
  • Goldberg , S. R. , Spealman , R. D. and Goldberg , D. M. 1981 . Persistent behavior at high rates maintained by intravenous self-administration of nicotine . Science , 214 ( 4520 ) : 573 – 5 .
  • Ziedonis , D. M. and George , T. P. 1997 . Schizophrenia and nicotine use: Report of a pilot smoking cessation program and review of neurobiological and clinical issues . Schizophr Bull. , 23 ( 2 ) : 247 – 54 .
  • de Leon , J. , Dadvand , M. , Canuso , C. , White , A. O. , Stanilla , J. K. and Simpson , G. M. 1995 . Schizophrenia and smoking: An epidemiological survey in a state hospital . Am J Psychiatry. , 152 ( 3 ) : 453 – 5 .
  • Diwan , A. , Castine , M. , Pomerleau , C. S. , Meador-Woodruff , J. H. and Dalack , G. W. 1998 . Differential prevalence of cigarette smoking in patients with schizophrenic vs mood disorders . Schizophr Res. , 33 ( 1–2 ) : 113 – 8 .
  • Degenhardt , L. , Hall , W. and Lynskey , M. 2001 . Alcohol, cannabis and tobacco use among Australians: A comparison of their associations with other drug use and use disorders, affective and anxiety disorders, and psychosis . Addiction. , 96 ( 11 ) : 1603 – 14 .
  • Kelly , C. and McCreadie , R. G. 1999 . Smoking habits, current symptoms, and premorbid characteristics of schizophrenic patients in Nithsdale, Scotland . Am J Psychiatry. , 156 ( 11 ) : 1751 – 7 .
  • Dawe , S. , Gerada , C. , Russell , M. A. and Gray , J. A. 1995 . Nicotine intake in smokers increases following a single dose of haloperidol . Psychopharmacology (Berl). , 117 ( 1 ) : 110 – 5 .
  • Chambers , R. A. , Krystal , J. H. and Self , D. W. 2001 . A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia . Biol Psychiatry. , 50 ( 2 ) : 71 – 83 .
  • Zammit , S. , Allebeck , P. , Dalman , C. , Lundberg , I. , Hemmingsson , T. and Lewis , G. 2003 . Investigating the association between cigarette smoking and schizophrenia in a cohort study . Am J Psychiatry. , 160 ( 12 ) : 2216 – 21 .
  • Bauman , A. and Phongsavan , P. 1999 . Epidemiology of substance use in adolescence: Prevalence, trends and policy implications . Drug Alcohol Depend. , 55 ( 3 ) : 187 – 207 .
  • Hafner , H. , Maurer , K. Loffler . 1999 . “ Onset and prodromal phase as a determinants of the course. ” . In Search for the cause of schizophrenia , Edited by: Gattaz , W. and Haffner , H. Vol. IV , Berlin : Springer Verlag .
  • 1894 . Commission IHD. Report.
  • Andreasson , S. , Allebeck , P. , Engstrom , A. and Rydberg , U. 1987 . Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts . Lancet. , 2 ( 8574 ) : 1483 – 6 .
  • Linszen , D. H. , Dingemans , P. M. and Lenior , M. E. 1994 . Cannabis abuse and the course of recent-onset schizophrenic disorders . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 51 ( 4 ) : 273 – 9 .
  • Mueser , K. T. , Yarnold , P. R. , Rosenberg , S. D. , Swett , C. Jr. , Miles , K. M. and Hill , D. 2000 . Substance use disorder in hospitalized severely mentally ill psychiatric patients: Prevalence, correlates, and subgroups . Schizophr Bull. , 26 ( 1 ) : 179 – 92 .
  • Arndt , S. , Tyrrell , G. , Flaum , M. and Andreasen , N. C. 1992 . Comorbidity of substance abuse and schizophrenia: The role of pre-morbid adjustment . Psychol Med. , 22 ( 2 ) : 379 – 88 .
  • Dixon , L. , Haas , G. , Weiden , P. J. , Sweeney , J. and Frances , A. J. 1991 . Drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: Clinical correlates and reasons for use . Am J Psychiatry. , 148 ( 2 ) : 224 – 30 .
  • Longhurst , J. G. 1997 . Cannabis and schizophrenia . Br J Psychiatry. , 171 : 584 – 5 .
  • Mathers , D. C. , Ghodse , A. H. , Caan , A. W. and Scott , S. A. 1991 . Cannabis use in a large sample of acute psychiatric admissions . Br J Addict. , 86 ( 6 ) : 779 – 84 .
  • Rolfe , M. , Tang , C. M. , Sabally , S. , Todd , J. E. , Sam , E. B. and Hatib N'Jie , A. B. 1993 . Psychosis and cannabis abuse in The Gambia. A case-control study . Br J Psychiatry. , 163 : 798 – 801 .
  • McCreadie , R. G. 2002 . Use of drugs, alcohol and tobacco by people with schizophrenia: Case-control study . Br J Psychiatry. , 181 : 321 – 5 .
  • Hall , W. and Degenhardt , L. 2000 . Cannabis use and psychosis: A review of clinical and ep-idemiological evidence . Aust N Z J Psychiatry. , 34 ( 1 ) : 26 – 34 .
  • Tien , A. Y. and Anthony , J. C. 1990 . Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences . J Nerv Ment Dis. , 178 ( 8 ) : 473 – 80 .
  • van Os , J. , Bak , M. , Hanssen , M. , Bijl , R. V. , de Graaf , R. and Verdoux , H. 2002 . Cannabis use and psychosis: A longitudinal population-based study . Am J Epidemiol. , 156 ( 4 ) : 319 – 27 .
  • Rottanburg , D. , Robins , A. H. , Ben-Arie , O. , Teggin , A. and Elk , R. 1982 . Cannabis-associated psychosis with hypomanic features . Lancet. , 2 ( 8312 ) : 1364 – 6 .
  • Knight , F. 1976 . Role of cannabis in psychiatric disturbance . Ann N Y Acad Sci. , 282 : 64 – 71 .
  • Cantwell , R. , Brewin , J. Glazebrook , C. 1999 . Prevalence of substance misuse in first-episode psychosis . Br J Psychiatry. , 174 : 150 – 3 .
  • Hambrecht , M. and Hafner , H. 1996 . Substance abuse and the onset of schizophrenia . Biol Psychiatry. , 40 ( 11 ) : 1155 – 63 .
  • Brady , K. , Anton , R. , Ballenger , J. C. , Lydiard , R. B. , Adinoff , B. and Selander , J. 1990 . Cocaine abuse among schizophrenic patients . Am J Psychiatry. , 147 ( 9 ) : 1164 – 7 .
  • Brady , K. , Casto , S. , Lydiard , R. B. , Malcolm , R. and Arana , G. 1991 . Substance abuse in an inpatient psychiatric sample . Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. , 17 ( 4 ) : 389 – 97 .
  • Chen , C. K. , Lin , S. K. Sham , P. C. 2003 . Pre-morbid characteristics and co-morbidity of methamphetamine users with and without psychosis . Psychol Med. , 33 ( 8 ) : 1407 – 14 .
  • Lysaker , P. , Bell , M. , Beam-Goulet , J. and Milstein , R. 1994 . Relationship of positive and negative symptoms to cocaine abuse in schizophrenia . J Nerv Ment Dis. , 182 ( 2 ) : 109 – 12 .
  • DeQuardo , J. R. , Carpenter , C. F. and Tandon , R. 1994 . Patterns of substance abuse in schizophrenia: Nature and significance . J Psychiatr Res. , 28 ( 3 ) : 267 – 75 .
  • Mueser , K. T. , Yarnold , P. R. Levinson , D. F. 1990 . Prevalence of substance abuse in schizophrenia: Demographic and clinical correlates . Schizophr Bull. , 16 ( 1 ) : 31 – 56 .
  • Batel , P. 2000 . Addiction and schizophrenia . Eur Psychiatry. , 15 ( 2 ) : 115 – 22 .
  • (NIDA) NIoD. A. 1999 . (National Institute of Health (USA)) National Household Survey on Drug Abuse.
  • Ziedonis , D. M. and Trudeau , K. 1997 . Motivation to quit using substances among individuals with schizophrenia: Implications for a motivation-based treatment model . Schizophr Bull. , 23 ( 2 ) : 229 – 38 .
  • Duke , P. J. , Pantelis , C. , McPhillips , M. A. and Barnes , T. R. 2001 . Comorbid non-alcohol substance misuse among people with schizophrenia: Epidemiological study in central London . Br J Psychiatry. , 179 : 509 – 13 .
  • Dixon , L. , Haas , G. , Weiden , P. , Sweeney , J. and Frances , A. 1990 . Acute effects of drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: Clinical observations and patients' self-reports . Schizophr Bull. , 16 ( 1 ) : 69 – 79 .
  • Seibyl , J. P. , Satel , S. L. , Anthony , D. , Southwick , S. M. , Krystal , J. H. and Charney , D. S. 1993 . Effects of cocaine on hospital course in schizophrenia . J Nerv Ment Dis. , 181 ( 1 ) : 31 – 7 .
  • Tsuang , M. T. , Simpson , J. C. and Kronfol , Z. 1982 . Subtypes of drug abuse with psychosis. Demographic characteristics, clinical features, and family history . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 39 ( 2 ) : 141 – 7 .
  • Mueser , K. T. , Drake , R. E. and Wallach , M. A. 1998 . Dual diagnosis: A review of etiological theories . Addict Behav. , 23 ( 6 ) : 717 – 34 .
  • Jones , P. , Rodgers , B. , Murray , R. and Marmot , M. 1994 . Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort . Lancet. , 344 ( 8934 ) : 1398 – 402 .
  • Cardno , A. G. , Marshall , E. J. Coid , B. 1999 . Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders: The Maudsley twin psychosis series . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 56 ( 2 ) : 162 – 8 .
  • Cannon , M. , Jones , P. B. and Murray , R. M. 2002 . Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: Historical and meta-analytic review . Am J Psychiatry. , 159 ( 7 ) : 1080 – 92 .
  • Ritzler , B. A. , Strauss , J. S. , Vanord , A. and Kokes , R. F. 1977 . Prognostic implications of various drinking patterns in psychiatric patients . Am J Psychiatry. , 134 ( 5 ) : 546 – 9 .
  • Buckley , P. F. 1998 . Substance abuse in schizophrenia: A review . J Clin Psychiatry. , 59 ( Suppl 3 ) : 26 – 30 .
  • Procyshyn , R. M. , Ihsan , N. and Thompson , D. 2001 . A comparison of smoking behaviours between patients treated with clozapine and depot neuroleptics . Int Clin Psychopharmacol. , 16 ( 5 ) : 291 – 4 .
  • van Kammen , D. P. and Boronow , J. J. 1988 . Dextro-amphetamine diminishes negative symptoms in schizophrenia . Int Clin Psychopharmacol. , 3 ( 2 ) : 111 – 21 .
  • Glassman , A. H. , Covey , L. S. , Dalack , G. W. and Stetner , F. 1992 . Cigarette smoking, major depression, and schizophrenia . Clin Neuropharmacol. , 15 ( Suppl 1 Pt A ) : 560A – 561A .
  • Pohl , R. , Yeragani , V. K. , Balon , R. , Lycaki , H. and McBride , R. 1992 . Smoking in patients with panic disorder . Psychiatry Res. , 43 ( 3 ) : 253 – 62 .
  • Ling , W. , Compton , P. , Rawson , R. and Wesson , D. 1996 . “ Neuropsychiatry of alcohol and drug abuse. ” . In Neuropsychiatry , Edited by: Fogel , B. , Schiffer , R. and Rao , S. 679 – 721 . Baltimore : Williams and Wilkins .
  • Berti , A. 1994 . Schizophrenia and substance abuse: The interface . Prog Neuropsycho-pharmacol Biol Psychiatry. , 18 ( 2 ) : 279 – 84 .
  • Kapur , S. 2003 . Psychosisas a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia . Am J Psychiatry. , 160 ( 1 ) : 13 – 23 .
  • Murray , R. M. and Fearon , P. 1999 . The developmental “risk factor” model of schizophrenia . J Psychiatr Res. , 33 ( 6 ) : 497 – 9 .
  • Sharpley , M. , Hutchinson , G. , McKenzie , K. and Murray , R. M. 2001 . Understanding the excess of psychosis among the African-Caribbean population in England. Review of current hypotheses . Br J Psychiatry Suppl. , 40 : s60 – 8 .
  • Rabinowitz , J. , Bromet , E. J. , Lavelle , J. , Carlson , G. , Kovasznay , B. and Schwartz , J. E. 1998 . Prevalence and severity of substance use disorders and onset of psychosis in first-admission psychotic patients . Psychol Med. , 28 ( 6 ) : 1411 – 9 .
  • Allebeck , P. , Adamsson , C. , Engstrom , A. and Rydberg , U. 1993 . Cannabis and schizophrenia: A longitudinal study of cases treated in Stockholm County . Acta Psychiatr Scand. , 88 ( 1 ) : 21 – 4 .
  • Damsma , G. , Westerink , B. H. , de Vries , J. B. and Horn , A. S. 1988 . The effect of systemically applied cholinergic drugs on the striatal release of dopamine and its metabolites, as determined by automated brain dialysis in conscious rats . Neurosci Lett. , 89 ( 3 ) : 349 – 54 .
  • Mifsud , J. C. , Hernandez , L. and Hoebel , B. G. 1989 . Nicotine infused into the nucleus accumbens increases synaptic dopamine as measured by in vivo microdialysis . Brain Res. , 478 ( 2 ) : 365 – 7 .
  • McCreadie , R. G. and Kelly , C. 2000 . Patients with schizophrenia who smoke. Private disaster, public resource . Br J Psychiatry. , 176 : 109
  • Tanda , G. , Pontieri , F. E. and Di Chiara , G. 1997 . Cannabinoid and heroin activation of mesolimbic dopamine transmission by a common mu1 opioid receptor mechanism . Science , 276 ( 5321 ) : 2048 – 50 .
  • Gardner , E. L. and Lowinson , J. H. 1991 . Marijuana's interaction with brain reward systems: Update 1991 . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 40 ( 3 ) : 571 – 80 .
  • Negrete , J. C. , Knapp , W. P. , Douglas , D. E. and Smith , W. B. 1986 . Cannabis affects the severity of schizophrenic symptoms: Results of a clinical survey . Psychol Med. , 16 ( 3 ) : 515 – 20 .
  • Mathers , D. C. and Ghodse , A. H. 1992 . Cannabis and psychotic illness . Br J Psychiatry. , 161 : 648 – 53 .
  • Thornicroft , G. 1990 . Cannabis and psychosis. Is there epidemiological evidence for an association? . Br J Psychiatry. , 157 : 25 – 33 .
  • Johns , A. 2001 . Psychiatric effects of cannabis . Br J Psychiatry. , 178 : 116 – 22 .
  • Andreasson , S. , Allebeck , P. , Engstrom , A. and Rydberg , U. 1988 . Cannabis and schizophrenia . Lancet. , 1 ( 8592 ) : 1000 – 1 .
  • Weiser , M. , Knobler , H. Y. , Noy , S. and Kaplan , Z. 2002 . Clinical characteristics of adolescents later hospitalized for schizophrenia . Am J Med Genet. , 114 ( 8 ) : 949 – 55 .
  • Arseneault , L. , Cannon , M. , Poulton , R. , Murray , R. , Caspi , A. and Moffitt , T. E. 2002 . Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: Longitudinal prospective study . Bmj. , 325 ( 7374 ) : 1212 – 3 .
  • Fergusson , D. M. , Horwood , L. J. and Swain-Campbell , N. R. 2003 . Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people . Psychol Med. , 33 ( 1 ) : 15 – 21 .
  • McGuire , P. K. , Jones , P. , Harvey , I. , Williams , M. , McGuffin , P. and Murray , R. M. 1995 . Morbid risk of schizophrenia for relatives of patients with cannabis-associated psychosis . Schizophr Res. , 15 ( 3 ) : 277 – 81 .
  • Verdoux , H. , Liraud , F. , Assens , F. , Abalan , F. and van Os , J. 2002 . Social and clinical consequences of cognitive deficits in early psychosis: A two-year follow-up study of first-admitted patients . Schizophr Res. , 56 ( 1–2 ) : 149 – 59 .
  • Schneier , F. R. and Siris , S. G. 1987 . A review of psychoactive substance use and abuse in schizophrenia. Patterns of drug choice . J Nerv Ment Dis. , 175 ( 11 ) : 641 – 52 .
  • Boutros , N. N. and Bowers , M. B. Jr. 1996 . Chronic substance-induced psychotic disorders: State of the literature . J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. , 8 ( 3 ) : 262 – 9 .
  • Connell , P. H. 1958 . Amphetamine Psychosis , Glasgow : Chapman Hall for the Institute of Psychiatry .
  • Poole , R. and Brabbins , C. 1996 . Drug induced psychosis . Br J Psychiatry. , 168 ( 2 ) : 135 – 8 .
  • Turner , W. M. and Tsuang , M. T. 1990 . Impact of substance abuse on the course and outcome of schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull. , 16 ( 1 ) : 87 – 95 .
  • Flaum , M. and Schultz , S. K. 1996 . When does amphetamine-induced psychosis become schizophrenia? . Am J Psychiatry. , 153 ( 6 ) : 812 – 5 .
  • Angrist , B. M. and Gersheron , S. 1969 . Amphetamine abuse in New York City-1966 to 1968 . Sem Psych. , 1 : 195 – 207 .
  • Bell , D. S. 1973 . The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 29 ( 1 ) : 35 – 40 .
  • Iwanami , A. , Sugiyama , A. Kuroki , N. 1994 . Patients with methamphetamine psychosis admitted to a psychiatric hospital in Japan. A preliminary report . Acta Psychiatr Scand. , 89 ( 6 ) : 428 – 32 .
  • McLellan , A. T. , Woody , G. E. and O'Brien , C. P. 1979 . Development of psychiatric illness in drug abusers: Possible roles of drug preference . New England Journal of Medicine. , 301 : 1310 – 1314 .
  • Milner , P. M. 1991 . Brain-stimulation reward: A review . Can J Psychol. , 45 ( 1 ) : 1 – 36 .
  • Nestler , E. J. 1992 . Molecular mechanisms of drug addiction . J Neurosci. , 12 ( 7 ) : 2439 – 50 .
  • Koob , G. 1992 . Dopamine, addiction and reward . Sem. Neuroscience. , 4 : 139 – 148 .
  • Di Chiara , G. and Imperato , A. 1988 . Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase syn-aptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. , 85 ( 14 ) : 5274 – 8 .
  • Ito , R. , Dalley , J. W. , Howes , S. R. , Robbins , T. W. and Everitt , B. J. 2000 . Dissociation in conditioned dopamine releasein the nucleus accumbens core and shell inresponse to cocaine cues and during cocaine-seeking behavior in rats . J Neurosci. , 20 ( 19 ) : 7489 – 95 .
  • Stewart , J. 2000 . Pathways to relapse: The neurobiology of drug- and stress-induced relapse to drug-taking . J Psychiatry Neurosci. , 25 ( 2 ) : 125 – 36 .
  • Breiter , H. C. , Gollub , R. L. Weisskoff , R. M. 1997 . Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion . Neuron. , 19 ( 3 ) : 591 – 611 .
  • Stein , E. A. , Pankiewicz , J. Harsch , H. H. 1998 . Nicotine-induced limbic cortical activation in the human brain: A functional MRI study . Am J Psychiatry. , 155 ( 8 ) : 1009 – 15 .
  • Deutch , A. Y. 1993 . Prefrontal cortical dopamine systems and the elaboration of functional corticostriatal circuits: Implications for schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease . J Neural Transm Gen Sect. , 91 ( 2–3 ) : 197 – 221 .
  • Whitelaw , R. B. , Markou , A. , Robbins , T. W. and Everitt , B. J. 1996 . Excitotoxic lesions of the basolateral amygdala impair the acquisition of cocaine-seeking behaviour under a second-order schedule of reinforcement . Psychopharmacology (Berl). , 127 ( 3 ) : 213 – 24 .
  • Maas , L. C. , Lukas , S. E. Kaufman , M. J. 1998 . Functional magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activation during cue-induced cocaine craving . Am J Psychiatry. , 155 ( 1 ) : 124 – 6 .
  • Garavan , H. , Pankiewicz , J. Bloom , A. 2000 . Cue-induced cocaine craving: Neuro-anatomical specificity for drug users and drug stimuli . Am J Psychiatry. , 157 ( 11 ) : 1789 – 98 .
  • Wexler , B. E. , Gottschalk , C. H. Fulbright , R. K. 2001 . Functional magnetic resonance imaging of cocaine craving . Am J Psychiatry. , 158 ( 1 ) : 86 – 95 .
  • Schneider , F. , Habel , U. Wagner , M. 2001 . Subcortical correlates of craving in recently abstinent alcoholic patients . Am J Psychiatry. , 158 ( 7 ) : 1075 – 83 .
  • Volkow , N. D. , Wang , G. J. Fowler , J. S. 1999 . Reinforcing effects of psychostimulants in humans are associated with increases in brain dopamine and occupancy of D(2) receptors . J Pharmacol Exp Ther. , 291 ( 1 ) : 409 – 15 .
  • Volkow , N. D. , Wang , G. J. Fischman , M. W. 1997 . Relationship between subjective effects of cocaine and dopamine transporter occupancy . Nature , 386 ( 6627 ) : 827 – 30 .
  • Boileau , I. , Assaad , J. M. Pihl , R. O. 2003 . Alcohol promotes dopamine release in the human nucleus accumbens . Synapse. , 49 ( 4 ) : 226 – 31 .
  • Marenco , S. , Carson , R. E. , Berman , K. F. , Herscovitch , P. and Weinberger , D. R. 2004 . Nicotine-induced dopamine release in primates measured with [11C]raclopride PET . Neuropsychopharmacology. , 29 ( 2 ) : 259 – 68 .
  • Schultz , W. , Tremblay , L. and Hollerman , J. R. 2000 . Reward processing in primate orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia . Cereb Cortex. , 10 ( 3 ) : 272 – 84 .
  • Berridge , K. C. and Robinson , T. E. 1998 . What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? . Brain Res Brain Res Rev. , 28 ( 3 ) : 309 – 69 .
  • McClure , S. M. , Daw , N. D. and Montague , P. R. 2003 . A computational substrate for incentive salience . Trends Neurosci. , 26 ( 8 ) : 423 – 8 .
  • Kapur , S. and Mann , J. J. 1992 . Role of the dopaminergic system in depression . Biol Psychiatry. , 32 ( 1 ) : 1 – 17 .
  • Zink , C. F. , Pagnoni , G. , Martin , M. E. , Dhamala , M. and Berns , G. S. 2003 . Human striatal response to salient nonrewarding stimuli . J Neurosci. , 23 ( 22 ) : 8092 – 7 .
  • Volkow , N. D. , Fowler , J. S. , Wang , G. J. and Swanson , J. M. 2004 . Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: Results from imaging studies and treatment implications . Mol Psychiatry. ,
  • Martinez , D. , Broft , A. Foltin , R. W. 2004 . Cocaine Dependence and D(2) Receptor Availability in the Functional Subdivisions of the Striatum: Relationship with Cocaine-Seeking Behavior . Neuropsychopharmacology. ,
  • Carlsson , A. and Lindqvist , M. 1963 . Effect of Chlorpromazine or Haloperidol on Formation of 3methoxytyramine and Normetanephrine in Mouse Brain . Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh). , 20 : 140 – 4 .
  • Snyder , S. H. 1976 . The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: Focus on the dopamine receptor . Am J Psychiatry. , 133 ( 2 ) : 197 – 202 .
  • Davis , K. L. , Kahn , R. S. , Ko , G. and Davidson , M. 1991 . Dopamine in schizophrenia: A review and reconceptualization . Am J Psychiatry. , 148 ( 11 ) : 1474 – 86 .
  • Lieberman , J. A. , Sheitman , B. B. and Kinon , B. J. 1997 . Neurochemical sensitization in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: Deficits and dysfunction in neuronal regulation and plasticity . Neuropsychopharmacology. , 17 ( 4 ) : 205 – 29 .
  • Lieberman , J. A. , Perkins , D. Belger , A. 2001 . The early stages of schizophrenia: Speculations on pathogenesis, pathophysiology, and therapeutic approaches . Biol Psychiatry. , 50 ( 11 ) : 884 – 97 .
  • Carlsson , A. 1988 . The current status of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia . Neuropsychopharmacology. , 1 ( 3 ) : 179 – 86 .
  • Carlsson , A. 1995 . Neurocircuitries and neurotransmitter interactions in schizophrenia . Int Clin Psychopharmacol. , 10 ( Suppl 3 ) : 21 – 8 .
  • Carlsson , A. 1995 . “ The dopamine theory revisited. ” . In Schizophrenia , Edited by: Hirsh , S. and Weinberger , D. R. Cambridge : Blackwell .
  • Weinberger , D. R. 1987 . Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 44 ( 7 ) : 660 – 9 .
  • Laruelle , M. , Abi-Dargham , A. van Dyck , C. H. 1996 . Single photon emission computerized tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug-free schizophrenic subjects . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. , 93 ( 17 ) : 9235 – 40 .
  • Breier , A. , Su , T. P. Saunders , R. 1997 . Schizophrenia is associated with elevated amphetamine-induced synaptic dopamine concentrations: Evidence from a novel positron emission tomography method . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. , 94 ( 6 ) : 2569 – 74 .
  • Abi-Dargham , A. , Gil , R. Krystal , J. 1998 . Increased striatal dopamine transmission in schizophrenia: Confirmation in a second cohort . Am J Psychiatry. , 155 ( 6 ) : 761 – 7 .
  • Laruelle , M. 2000 . The role of endogenous sensitization in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: Implications from recent brain imaging studies . Brain Res Brain Res Rev. , 31 ( 2–3 ) : 371 – 84 .
  • Weinberger , D. and Laruelle , M. 2001 . “ Neurochemical and neuropharmacological imaging in schizophrenia. ” . In Neuro-psychopharmacology-The Fifth Generation of Progress , Edited by: Davis , K. L. , Charney , D. S. , Coyle , J. and Nemeroff , C. Lippincott Williams Wilkins .
  • Abi-Dargham , A. , Rodenhiser , J. Printz , D. 2000 . Increased baseline occupancy of D2 receptors by dopamine in schizophrenia . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. , 97 ( 14 ) : 8104 – 9 .
  • Reith , J. , Benkelfat , C. Sherwin , A. 1994 . Elevated dopa decarboxylase activity in living brain of patients with psychosis . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. , 91 ( 24 ) : 11651 – 4 .
  • Hietala , J. , Syvalahti , E. Vuorio , K. 1995 . Presynaptic dopamine function in striatum of neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients . Lancet. , 346 ( 8983 ) : 1130 – 1 .
  • Hietala , J. , Syvalahti , E. Vilkman , H. 1999 . Depressive symptoms and presynaptic dopamine function in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenia . Schizophr Res. , 35 ( 1 ) : 41 – 50 .
  • Meyer-Lindenberg , A. , Miletich , R. S. Kohn , P. D. 2002 . Reduced prefrontal activity predicts exaggerated striatal dopaminergic function in schizophrenia . Nat Neurosci. , 5 ( 3 ) : 267 – 71 .
  • Lindstrom , L. H. , Gefvert , O. Hagberg , G. 1999 . Increased dopamine synthesis rate in medial prefrontal cortex and striatum in schizophrenia indicated by L-(beta-11C) DOPA and PET . Biol Psychiatry. , 46 ( 5 ) : 681 – 8 .
  • McGowan , S. W. , Lawrence , A. , Sale , T. , Quested , D. and Grasby , P. M. 2004 . Presynaptic dopaminergic dysfunction in medicated schizophrenic patients . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 61 : 134 – 142 .
  • Dao-Castellana , M. H. , Paillere-Martinot , M. L. Hantraye , P. 1997 . Presynaptic dopaminergic function in the striatum of schizophrenic patients . Schizophr Res. , 23 ( 2 ) : 167 – 74 .
  • Elkashef , A. M. , Doudet , D. , Bryant , T. , Cohen , R. M. , Li , S. H. and Wyatt , R. J. 2000 . 6-(18)F-DOPA PET study in patients with schizophrenia. Positron emission tomography . Psychiatry Res. , 100 ( 1 ) : 1 – 11 .
  • Braff , D. L. , Geyer , M. A. and Swerdlow , N. R. 2001 . Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: Normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies . Psycho-pharmacology (Berl). , 156 ( 2–3 ) : 234 – 58 .
  • Tenn , C. C. , Fletcher , P. J. and Kapur , S. 2003 . Amphetamine-sensitized animals show a sensorimotor gating and neurochemical abnormality similar to that of schizophrenia . Schizophr Res. , 64 ( 2–3 ) : 103 – 14 .
  • Zhang , J. , Engel , J. A. , Soderpalm , B. and Svensson , L. 1998 . Repeated administration of amphetamine induces sensitisation to its disruptive effect on prepulse inhibition in the rat . Psychopharmacology (Berl). , 135 ( 4 ) : 401 – 6 .
  • Gray , N. S. , Pilowsky , L. S. , Gray , J. A. and Kerwin , R. W. 1995 . Latent inhibition in drug naive schizophrenics: Relationship to duration of illness and dopamine D2 binding using SPET . Schizophr Res. , 17 ( 1 ) : 95 – 107 .
  • Kalivas , P. W. and Stewart , J. 1991 . Dopamine transmission in the initiation and expression of drug- and stress-induced sensitization of motor activity . Brain Res Brain Res Rev. , 16 ( 3 ) : 223 – 44 .
  • Deutch , A. Y. , Clark , W. A. and Roth , R. H. 1990 . Prefrontal cortical dopamine depletion enhances the responsiveness of mesolimbic dopamine neurons to stress . Brain Res. , 521 ( 1–2 ) : 311 – 5 .
  • Norman , R. M. and Malla , A. K. 1993 . Stressful life events and schizophrenia. I: A review of the research . Br J Psychiatry. , 162 : 161 – 6 .
  • Norman , R. M. and Malla , A. K. 1993 . Stressful life events and schizophrenia. II: Conceptual and methodological issues . Br J Psychiatry. , 162 : 166 – 74 .
  • Agid , O. , Kapur , S. , Arenovich , T. and Zipursky , R. B. 2003 . Delayed-onset hypothesis of antipsychotic action: A hypothesis tested and rejected . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 60 ( 12 ) : 1228 – 35 .
  • Kapur , S. and Mamo , D. 2003 . Half a century of antipsychotics and still a central role for dopamine D2 receptors . Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. , 27 ( 7 ) : 1081 – 90 .
  • Robinson , T. E. and Berridge , K. C. 1993 . The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sen-sitization theory of addiction . Brain Res Brain Res Rev. , 18 ( 3 ) : 247 – 91 .
  • Gorriti , M. A. , Rodriguez de Fonseca , F. , Navarro , M. and Palomo , T. 1999 . Chronic (-)delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatment induces sensitization to the psychomotor effects of amphetamine in rats . Eur J Pharmacol. , 365 ( 2–3 ) : 133 – 42 .
  • Hooks , M. S. , Colvin , A. C. , Juncos , J. L. and Justice , J. B. Jr. 1992 . Individual differences in basal and cocaine-stimulated extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens using quantitative microdialysis . Brain Res. , 587 ( 2 ) : 306 – 12 .
  • Hooks , M. S. , Jones , G. H. , Liem , B. J. and Justice , J. B. Jr. 1992 . Sensitization and individual differences to IP amphetamine, cocaine, or caffeine following repeated intracranial amphetamine infusions . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 43 ( 3 ) : 815 – 23 .
  • Schulz , R. and Herz , A. 1977 . Naloxone-precipitated withdrawal reveals sensitization to neurotransmitters in morphine tolerant/dependent rats . Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. , 299 ( 1 ) : 95 – 9 .
  • Shuster , L. , Yu , G. and Bates , A. 1977 . Sensitization to cocaine stimulation in mice . Psychopharmacology (Berl). , 52 ( 2 ) : 185 – 90 .
  • Hakan , R. L. and Ksir , C. J. 1988 . Nicotine induced locomotor activity in rats: The role of Pavlovian conditioning . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 29 ( 4 ) : 661 – 5 .
  • Hunt , W. A. and Lands , W. E. 1992 . A role for behavioral sensitization in uncontrolled etha-nol intake . Alcohol. , 9 ( 4 ) : 327 – 8 .
  • Fish , E. W. , DeBold , J. F. and Micrek , K. 2002 . Repeated alcohol behavioral sensitization and alcohol-heightened aggression in mice . Psychopharmacology (Berl). , 160 ( 1 ) : 39 – 48 .
  • Vanderschuren , L. J. and Kalivas , P. W. 2000 . Alterations in dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission in the induction and expression of behavioral sensitization: A critical review of preclinical studies . Psychopharmacology (Berl). , 151 ( 2–3 ) : 99 – 120 .
  • Steketee , J. D. 1998 . Injection of SCH 23390 into the ventral tegmental area blocks the development of neurochemical but not behavioral sensitization to cocaine . Behav Pharmacol. , 9 ( 1 ) : 69 – 76 .
  • Bartlett , E. , Hallin , A. , Chapman , B. and Angrist , B. 1997 . Selective sensitization to the psychosis-inducing effects of cocaine: A possible marker for addiction relapse vulnerability? . Neuropsychopharmacology. , 16 ( 1 ) : 77 – 82 .
  • Strakowski , S. M. , Sax , K. W. , Setters , M. J. , Stanton , S. P. and Keck , P. E. Jr. 1997 . Lack of enhanced response to repeated d-amphetamine challenge in first-episode psychosis: Implications for a sensitization model of psychosis in humans . Biol Psychiatry. , 42 ( 9 ) : 749 – 55 .
  • Laruelle , M. , Abi-Dargham , A. , Gil , R. , Kegeles , L. and Innis , R. 1999 . Increased dopamine transmission in schizophrenia: Relationship to illness phases . Biol Psychiatry. , 46 ( 1 ) : 56 – 72 .
  • Abi-Dargham , A. , Kegeles , L. S. Zea-Ponce , Y. 2004 . Striatal amphetamine-induced dopamine release in patients with schizotypal personality disorder studied with single photon emission computed tomography and [123I]iodobenzamide . Biol Psychiatry. , 55 ( 10 ) : 1001 – 6 .
  • D'Souza , D. C. , Perry , E. MacDougall , L. 2004 . The Psychotomimetic Effects of Intravenous Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Healthy Individuals: Implications for Psychosis . Neuropsychopharmacology. ,
  • Laruelle , M. , Kegeles , L. S. and Abi-Dargham , A. 2003 . Glutamate, dopamine, and schizophrenia: From pathophysiology to treatment . Ann N Y Acad Sci. , 1003 : 138 – 58 .
  • Pycock , C. J. , Kerwin , R. W. and Carter , C. J. 1980 . Effect of lesion of cortical dopamine terminals on subcortical dopamine receptors in rats . Nature , 286 ( 5768 ) : 74 – 6 .
  • Tzschentke , T. M. 2001 . Pharmacology and behavioral pharmacology of the mesocortical dopamine system . Prog Neurobiol. , 63 ( 3 ) : 241 – 320 .
  • Lipska , B. K. , Jaskiw , G. E. , Chrapusta , S. , Karoum , F. and Weinberger , D. R. 1992 . Ibotenic acid lesion of the ventral hippocampus differentially affects dopamine and its metabolites in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex in the rat . Brain Res. , 585 ( 1–2 ) : 1 – 6 .
  • Lieberman , J. A. , Kinon , B. J. and Loebel , A. D. 1990 . Dopaminergic mechanisms in idiopathic and drug-induced psychoses . Schizophr Bull. , 16 ( 1 ) : 97 – 110 .
  • Lillrank , S. M. , Lipska , B. K. and Weinberger , D. R. 1995 . Neurodevelopmental animal models of schizophrenia . Clin Neurosci. , 3 ( 2 ) : 98 – 104 .
  • Reinstein , D. K. , Hannigan , J. H. Jr. and Isaacson , R. L. 1982 . Time course of certain behavioral changes after hippocampal damage and their alteration by dopaminergic intervention into nucleus accumbens . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 17 ( 2 ) : 193 – 202 .
  • Schmajuk , N. A. 1987 . Animal models for schizophrenia: The hippocampally lesioned animal . Schizophr Bull. , 13 ( 2 ) : 317 – 27 .
  • Whishaw , I. Q. and Mittleman , G. 1991 . Hippocampal modulation of nucleus accumbens: Behavioral evidence from amphetamine-induced activity profiles . Behav Neural Biol. , 55 ( 3 ) : 289 – 306 .
  • Wilkinson , L. S. , Mittleman , G. , Torres , E. , Humby , T. , Hall , F. S. and Robbins , T. W. 1993 . Enhancement of amphetamine-induced locomotor activity and dopamine release in nucleus accumbens following excitotoxic lesions of the hippocampus . Behav Brain Res. , 55 ( 2 ) : 143 – 50 .
  • Schaub , C. L. , Schmelzeis , M. C. and Mittleman , G. 1997 . The effects of limbic lesions on locomotion and stereotypy elicited by dopamine agonists in the rat . Behav Brain Res. , 84 ( 1–2 ) : 129 – 43 .
  • Jentsch , J. D. and Roth , R. H. 1999 . The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: From NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia . Neuropsychopharmacology. , 20 ( 3 ) : 201 – 25 .
  • Giannini , A. J. , Eighan , M. S. , Loiselle , R. H. and Giannini , M. C. 1984 . Comparison of haloperidol and chlorpromazine in the treatment of phencyclidine psychosis . J Clin Pharmacol. , 24 ( 4 ) : 202 – 4 .
  • Giannini , A. J. , Nageotte , C. , Loiselle , R. H. , Malone , D. A. and Price , W. A. 1984 . Comparison of chlorpromazine, haloperidol and pimozide in the treatment of phencyclidine psychosis: DA-2 receptor specificity . J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. , 22 ( 6 ) : 573 – 9 .
  • Svenningsson , P. , Tzavara , E. T. Carruthers , R. 2003 . Diverse psychotomimetics act through a common signaling pathway . Science , 302 ( 5649 ) : 1412 – 5 .
  • Kegeles , L. S. , Abi-Dargham , A. Zea-Ponce , Y. 2000 . Modulation of amphetamine-induced striatal dopamine release by ketamine in humans: Implications for schizophrenia . Biol Psychiatry. , 48 ( 7 ) : 627 – 40 .
  • Ujike , H. 2002 . Molecular biology of drug dependence and behavioral sensitization . Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. , 104 ( 11 ) : 1055 – 68 .
  • Albert , K. A. , Hemmings , H. C. Jr. Adamo , A. I. 2002 . Evidence for decreased DARPP-32 in the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 59 ( 8 ) : 705 – 12 .
  • Guillin , O. , Griffon , N. Diaz , J. 2004 . Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and the plasticity of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway . Int Rev Neurobiol. , 59 : 425 – 44 .
  • Staley , J. K. and Mash , D. C. 1996 . Adaptive increase in D3 dopamine receptors in the brain reward circuits of human cocaine fatalities . J Neurosci. , 16 ( 19 ) : 6100 – 6 .
  • Gurevich , E. V. , Bordelon , Y. , Shapiro , R. M. , Arnold , S. E. , Gur , R. E. and Joyce , J. N. 1997 . Mesolimbic dopamine D3 receptors and use of antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia. A postmortem study . Arch Gen Psychiatry. , 54 ( 3 ) : 225 – 32 .
  • Guillin , O. , Diaz , J. , Carroll , P. , Griffon , N. , Schwartz , J. C. and Sokoloff , P. 2001 . BDNF controls dopamine D3 receptor expression and triggers behavioural sensitization . Nature , 411 ( 6833 ) : 86 – 9 .
  • Takahashi , M. , Shirakawa , O. Toyooka , K. 2000 . Abnormal expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor in the corticolimbic system of schizophrenic patients . Mol Psychiatry. , 5 ( 3 ) : 293 – 300 .
  • Durany , N. , Michel , T. Zochling , R. 2001 . Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 3 in schizophrenic psychoses . Schizophr Res. , 52 ( 1–2 ) : 79 – 86 .
  • Weickert , C. S. , Hyde , T. M. , Lipska , B. K. , Herman , M. M. , Weinberger , D. R. and Kleinman , J. E. 2003 . Reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor in prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia . Mol Psychiatry. , 8 ( 6 ) : 592 – 610 .
  • Krebs , M. O. , Sautel , F. Bourdel , M. C. 1998 . Dopamine D3 receptor gene variants and substance abuse in schizophrenia . Mol Psychiatry. , 3 ( 4 ) : 337 – 41 .
  • Krebs , M. O. , Guillin , O. Bourdell , M. C. 2000 . Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene variants association with age at onset and therapeutic response in schizophrenia . Mol Psychiatry. , 5 ( 5 ) : 558 – 62 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.