The Role of Timing and Intensity of Rehabilitation Therapies

REFERENCES

• Humm JL, Kozlowski DA, James DC, Gotts JE, Schallert T. Use-dependent exacerbation of brain damage occurs during an early post-lesion vulnerable period. Brain Res. 1998;783(2):286–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozlowski DA, James DC, Schallert T. Use-dependent exaggeration of neuronal injury after unilateral sensorimotor cortex lesions. I Neurosci. 1996;16(15): 4776–4786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schallert T, Bland ST, Leasure JL. Motor rehabilitation, use-related neural events and reorganization of the brain after injury. In: Levin HS, Grafman J, ed. Cerebral Reorganization of Function After Brain Damage. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000:145–167.
   Google Scholar
• Risedal A, Zeng J, Johansson B. Early training may exacerbate brain damage after focal brain ischemia in the rat. I Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1999;19(9):997–1003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schallert T, Hernandez T. GABAergic drugs and neuroplasticity after brain injury: impact on func-tional recovery. In: Goldstein LB, ed. Restorative Neu-rology: Advances in Pharmacology for Recovery After Stroke. Armonk, NY: Futura; 1998:91–120.
   Google Scholar
• Schallert T, Fleming SM, Woodlee MT. Should the injured and intact hemispheres be treated differently during the early phases of physical restorative therapy in experimental stroke or parkinsonism? Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2003;14(1 suppl):527–546.
   Google Scholar
• Humm JL, Kozlowski DA, Bland ST, James DC, Schallert T. Use-dependent exaggeration of brain in-jury: Is glutamate involved? Exp Neurol. 1999;157(2): 349–358.
   Google Scholar
• DeBow SB, McKenna JE, Kolb B, Colbourne F. Imme-diate constraint-induced movement therapy causes local hyperthermia that exacerbates cerebral cortical injury in rats. Can I Physiol Pharmacol. 2004;82(4): 231–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabowski M, Sorensen JC, Mattsson B, Zimmer J, Johansson BB. Influence of an enriched environment and cortical grafting on functional outcome in brain infarcts of adult rats. Exp Neurol. 1995;133(496–102.
   Google Scholar
• Johansson BB, Ohlsson AL. Environment, social inter-action, and physical activity as determinants of func-tional outcome after cerebral infarction in the rat. Exp Neurol. 1996;139(2): 322–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlsson AL, Johansson BB. Environment influences functional outcome of cerebral infarction in rats. Stroke. 1995;26(4):644–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turkstra LS, Holland AL, Bays GA. The neuroscience of recovery and rehabilitation: What have we learned from animal research? Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(4):604–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E, Miller NE, Novack TA, et al. Technique to improve chronic motor deficit after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(4):347–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E, Crago JE, Burgio LD, et al. An operant approach to rehabilitation medicine: overcoming learned nonuse by shaping. I Exp Anal Behav. 1994; 61(2):281–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E, Uswatte G, Elbert T. New treatments in neurorehabilitation founded on basic research. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002;3(3):228–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann-Haefelin T, Witte OW. Periinfarct and re-mote excitability changes after transient middle ce-rebral artery occlusion. I Cereb Blood Row Metab. 2000;20(1):45–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biernaskie J, Chernenko G, Corbett D. Efficacy of rehabilitative experience declines with time after focal ischemic brain injury. I Neurosci. 2004;24(5): 1245–1254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones TA, Chu CJ, Grande LA, Gregory AD. Motor skills training enhances lesion-induced structural plasticity in the motor cortex of adult rats. Neurosci. 1999; 19(22):10153–10163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Wise BM, SiFuentes F, Milliken GW. Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct. Science. 1996;272(5269): 1791–1794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schallert T, Kozlowski DA, Humm IL, Cocke RR. Use-dependent structural events in recovery of function. Adv Neurol. 1997;73:229–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson BB. Brain plasticity and stroke rehabilita-tion. The Willis lecture. Stroke. 2000;31(1):223–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones TA, Schallert T. Use-dependent growth of py-ramidal neurons after neocortical damage. Neurosci. 1994; 14(4):2140–2152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolb B. Brain Plasticity and Behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Schallert T, Jones TA. "Exuberant" neuronal growth after brain damage in adult rats: the essential role of behavioral experience. I Neural Transplant Plast. 1993;4(3):193–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbay S, Plautz E, Friel K, et al. Delayed rehabilita-tive training following a small ischemic infarct in nonhuman primate primary motor cortex. Soc Neurosci Abstr. 2001;27:931.
   Google Scholar
• Whitall J, McCombe WS, Silver KH, Macko RF. Re-petitive bilateral arm training with rhythmic audi-tory cueing improves motor function in chronic hemi paretic stroke. Stroke. 2000;31(10):2390–2395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Milliken GW, Jenkins WM, Merzenich MM. Use-dependent alterations of movement represen-tations in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys. I Neurosci. 1996 January 15;16(2):785–807.
   Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Milliken GW. Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys. I Neurophysiol. 1996;75(5):2144–2149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigenson JS, McCarthy ML, Greenberg SD, Feigenson WD. Factors influencing outcome and length of stay in a stroke rehabilitation unit. Part 2. Comparison of 318 screened and 248 unscreened patients. Stroke. 1977;8(6):657–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigenson JS, McDowell FH, Meese P, McCarthy ML, Greenberg SD. Factors influencing outcome and length of stay in a stroke rehabilitation unit. Part 1. Analysis of 248 unscreened patients-medical and functional prognostic indicators. Stroke. 1977;8(6):651–656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigenson JS, McCarthy ML. Stroke rehabilitation. II. Guidelines for establishing a stroke rehabilitation unit. NY State] Med. 1977;77(9):1430–1434.
   Google Scholar
• Feigenson JS, McCarthy ML, Meese PD, et al. Stroke rehabilitation I. Factors predicting outcome and length of stay-an overview. NY State I Med. 1977;77(9):1426–1430.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayes SH, Carroll SR. Early intervention care in the acute stroke patient. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1986;67(5):319–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wertz RT. Communication deficits in stroke survi-vors. An overview of classification and treatment. Stroke. 1990;21(9 suppl):1116–1118.
   Google Scholar
• Cifu DX, Stewart DG. Factors affecting functional outcome after stroke: a critical review of rehabilita-tion interventions. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80(5 suppl 1):535–539.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson TP, Bourestom N, Greenberg FR, Hildyard VG. Predictive factors in stroke rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1974;55(12):545–553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourestom NC. Predictors of long-term recovery in cerebrovascular disease. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1967;48(8): 415–419.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shah S, Vanclay F, Cooper B. Predicting discharge status at commencement of stroke rehabilitation. Stroke. 1989;20(6):766–769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ottenbacher KJ, Jannell S. The results of clinical trials in stroke rehabilitation research. Arch Neurol. 1993; 50(1):37–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paolucci S, Antonucci G, Grasso MG, et al. Early versus delayed inpatient stroke rehabilitation: a matched comparison conducted in Italy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000; 81(6):695–700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ancheta J, Husband M, Law D, Reding M. Initial functional independence measure score and interval post stroke help assess outcome, length of hospital-ization, and quality of care. Neurorehabil Neural Re-pair. 2000;14(2):127–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossi PW, Forer S, Wiechers D. Effective rehabilita-tion for patients with stroke: analysis of entry, func-tional gain, and discharge to community. I Neuro Rehabil. 1997;11: 27–33.
   Google Scholar
• Musicco M, Emberti L, Nappi G, Caltagirone C. Early and long-term outcome of rehabilitation in stroke patients: the role of patient characteristics, time of initiation, and duration of interventions. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003; 84(4):551–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gresham GE, Fitzpatrick TE, Wolf PA, McNamara PM, Kannel WB, Dawber TR. Residual disability in survivors of stroke-the Framingham study. N Engl Med. 1975; 293(19):954–956.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowland C, deBruin H, Basmajian JV, Plews N, Burcea I. Agonist and antagonist activity during vol-untary upper-limb movement in patients with stroke. Phys Ther. 1992;72(9):624–633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liepert J, Miltner WH, Bauder H, et al. Motor cortex plasticity during constraint-induced movement therapy in stroke patients. Neurosci Lett. 1998;250(1):5–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freund HJ. Remapping the brain. Science. 1996;272 (5269):1754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liepert J, Bauder H, Wolfgang HR, Miltner WH, Taub E, Weiller C. Treatment-induced cortical reorganiza-tion after stroke in humans. Stroke. 2000;31(6): 1210–1216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E. Somatosensory deafferentation research with monkeys: implications for rehabilitation medi-cine. In: Ince LP, ed. Behavioral Psychology in Reha-bilitation Medicine: Clinical Applications. New York: Williams & Wilkins; 1980:371–401.
   Google Scholar
• Taub E, Pidikiti R, DeLuca S, Crago J. Effects of motor restriction of an unimpaired upper extremity, and training on improving functional tasks and altering brain behaviors. In: Toole JF, Good DC, eds. Imaging in Neurologic Rehabilitation. New York: Demos Vermande; 1996:133–154.
   Google Scholar
• Werhahn KJ, Conforto AB, Kadom N, Hallett M, Cohen LG. Contribution of the ipsilateral motor cortex to recovery after chronic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2003;54(4):464–472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey JR, Kimberley TJ, Lewis SM, et al. Analysis of fMRI and finger tracking training in subjects with chronic stroke. Brain. 2002;125\(pt 4):773–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall RS, Perera GM, Lazar RM, Krakauer JW, Constantine RC, DeLaPaz RL. Evolution of cortical activation during recovery from corticospinal tract infarction. Stroke. 2000;31(3):656–661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer SC, Nelles G, Benson RR, et al. A functional MRI study of subjects recovered from hemiparetic stroke. Stroke. 1997;28(12):2518–2527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiller C, Ramsay SC, Wise RJ, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RS. Individual patterns of functional reorganization in the human cerebral cortex after capsular infarc-tion. Ann Neurol. 1993;33(2):181–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netz J, Lammers T, Homberg V. Reorganization of motor output in the non-affected hemisphere after stroke. Brain. 1997;120\(pt 9):1579–1586.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Turton A, Wroe S, Trepte N, Fraser C, Lemon RN. Contralateral and ipsilateral EMG responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation during recovery of arm and hand function after stroke. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1996;101(4): 316–328.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miyai I, Suzuki T, Kii K, Kang J, Kajiura I. Functional outcome of multidisciplinary rehabilitation in chronic stroke. I Neuro Rehabil. 1998;12:95–99.
   Google Scholar
• Kolb B. Overview of cortical plasticity and recovery from brain injury. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2003;14(1 suppl):57-25, viii.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feeney DM, Gonzalez A, Law WA. Amphetamine, haloperidol, and experience interact to affect rate of recovery after motor cortex injury. Science. 1982;217(4562):855–857.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feeney DM, Sutton RL. Pharmacotherapy for recov-ery of function after brain injury. Crit Rev Neurobiol. 1987;3(2):135–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feeney DM, Sutton RL. Catecholamines and recov-ery of function after brain damage. In: Stein DG, Sabel BA, eds. Pharmacological Approaches to the Treatment of Brain and Spinal Cord Injury, 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1988:121–142.
   Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Plautz EJ, Frost SB. Role of adaptive plastic-ity in recovery of function after damage to motor cortex. Muscle Nerve. 2001;24(8):1000–1019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friel KM, Heddings AA, Nudo RJ. Effects of postlesion experience on behavioral recovery and neurophysiologic reorganization after cortical injury in primates. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2000; 14(3):187–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeBow SB, Davies ML, Clarke HL, Colbourne F. Constraint-induced movement therapy and reha-bilitation exercises lessen motor deficits and volume of brain injury after striatal hemorrhagic stroke in rats. Stroke. 2003;34(4):1021–1026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page SJ. Intensity versus task-specificity after stroke: How important is intensity? Am I Phys Med Rehabil. 2003; 82(9):730–732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E. New discovery equals change in clinical practice. I Rehabil Res Dev. 1999;36:vii-viii.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langhorne P, Wagenaar R, Partridge C. Physio-therapy after stroke: More is better? Physiother Res Int. 1996;1(2):75–88.
   Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Wagenaar RC, Koelman TW, Lankhorst GJ, Koetsier JC. Effects of intensity of rehabilitation after stroke. A research synthesis. Stroke. 1997; 28(8):1550–1556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasell R, Foley N, Salter K, et al. Evidence-Based Review of Stroke Rehabilitation, 6th ed. London, Ontario: 2004. Available at: http://www.ebrsr.com
   Google Scholar
• Moseley AM, Herbert RD, Sherrington C, Maher CG. Evidence for physiotherapy practice: a survey of the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro). Aust I Physiother. 2002;48(1):43–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalra L. Does age affect benefits of stroke unit reha-bilitation? Stroke. 1994;25(2):346–351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Wagenaar RC, Twisk JW, Lankhorst GJ, Koetsier JC. Intensity of leg and arm training after primary middle-cerebral-artery stroke: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;354(9174):191–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanlon RE. Motor learning following unilateral stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996;77(8):811–815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunderland A, Tinson DJ, Bradley EL, Fletcher D, Langton HR, Wade DT. Enhanced physical therapy improves recovery of arm function after stroke. A randomised controlled trial. I Neurol Neurosurg Psy-chiatry. 1992;55(7):530–535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe BT, Krebs HI, Hogan N, Edelsteinn L, Diels CM, Aisen ML. Robot training enhanced motor out-come in patients with stroke maintained over 3 years. Neurology. 1999;53(8):1874–1876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers H, Mackintosh J, Price C, et al. Does an early increased-intensity interdisciplinary upper limb therapy programme following acute stroke improve outcome? Clin Rehabil. 2003;17(6):579–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln NB, Parry RH, Vass CD. Randomized, con-trolled trial to evaluate increased intensity of physio-therapy treatment of arm function after stroke. Stroke. 1999;30(3):573–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feys HM, De Weerdt WI, Selz BE, et al. Effect of a therapeutic intervention for the hemiplegic upper limb in the acute phase after stroke: a single-blind, randomized, controlled multicenter trial. Stroke. 1998;29(4):785–792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brindley P, Copeland M, Demain C, Martyn P. Com-parison of the speech of ten chronic Broca's aphasics following intensive and non-intensive peri-ods of therapy. Aphasiology. 1989;3:695–707.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall RC, Wertz RT, Weiss DG, et al. Home treat-ment for aphasic patients by trained nonprofession-als. I Speech Hear Disord. 1989;54(3):462–470.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Poeck K, Huber W, Willmes K. Outcome of intensive language treatment in aphasia.] Speech Hear Disord. 1989;54(3):471–479.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wertz RT, Weiss DG, Aten IL, et al. Comparison of clinic, home, and deferred language treatment for aphasia. A Veterans Administration Cooperative Study. Arch Neurol. 1986;43(7):653–658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David R, Enderby P, Bainton D. Treatment of ac-quired aphasia: speech therapists and volunteers compared. I Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1982;45(11):957–961.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartman J, Landau WM. Comparison of formal lan-guage therapy with supportive counseling for apha-sia due to acute vascular accident. Arch Neurol. 1987;44(6):646–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln NB, McGuirk E, Mulley GP, Lendrem W, Jones AC, Mitchell JR. Effectiveness of speech therapy for aphasic stroke patients. A randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1984;1(8388):1197–1200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prins RS, Schoonen R, Vermeulen J. Efficacy of two different types of speech therapy for aphasic stroke patients. Appl Psycholingistics. 1989;10:85–123.
   Google Scholar
• Bhogal SK, Teasell R, Speechley M. Intensity of aphasia therapy, impact on recovery. Stroke. 2003;34(4):987–993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barreca S, Wolf SL, Fasoli S, Bohannon R. Treatment interventions for the paretic upper limb of stroke survivors: a critical review. Neurorehabil Neural Re-pair. 2003; 17(4):220–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montoya CP, Campbell-Hope LJ, Pemberton KD, Dunnett SB. The "staircase test": a measure of inde-pendent forelimb reaching and grasping abilities in rats.] Neurosci Methods. 1991;36(2-3):219–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar