1,318
Views
123
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Sensory Dysfunction Following Stroke: Incidence, Significance, Examination, and Intervention

&
Pages 200-217 | Published online: 05 Jan 2015

REFERENCES

  • Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics - 2004 Update. Available at: http://www.americanheart.org/downloadable/heart/1079736729696HDStats2004UpdateREV3-19-04.pdf. Accessed March 27, 2004.
  • Carey LM. Somatosensory loss after stroke. Critical Rev Phys Rehab Med. 1995;7:51–91.
  • Feys HM, De Weerdt WJ, Selz BE, et al. Effect of a therapeutic intervention for the hemiplegic upper limb in the acute phase after stroke: a single-blind, randomized, controlled multicenter trial. Stroke. 1998;29(4):785–792.
  • Carey LM, Matyas TA, Oke LE. Sensory loss in stroke patients: effective training of tactile and pro-prioceptive discrimination. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(6):602–611.
  • Tyson S, Hanley M, Chillala J, Selley AC. Sensory loss in hospital-admitted people with stroke: character-istics, associated factors and relationship with func-tion. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;8(8):1–7.
  • Moskowitz E, Lightbody FE, Freitag NS. Long-term follow-up of the poststroke patient. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1972;53(4):167–172.
  • Kim JS, Choi-Kwon S. Discriminative sen-sory dysfunction after unilateral stroke. Stroke. 1996;27(4):677–682.
  • Yekutiel M. Sensory Re-education of the Hand After Stroke. London, England: Whurr Publishers; 2000.
  • Holmgren H, Leijon G, Boivie J, Johansson I, Ilievska L. Central post-stroke pain-somatosensory evoked potentials in relation to location of the le-sion and sensory signs. Pain. 1990;40(1):43–52.
  • Asanuma H, Arissian K. Experiments on functional role of peripheral input to motor cortex during vol-untary movements in the monkey. J Neurophysiol. 1984;52(2):212–227.
  • van Buskirk C, Webster D. Prognostic value of sen-sory deficit in rehabilitation of hemiplegics. Neurol-ogy. 1955;5:407–411.
  • Anderson EK. Sensory impairments in hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1971:293–297.
  • Jeannerod M, Michel F, Prablanc C. The control of hand movements in a case of hemianesthesia fol-lowing a parietal lesion. Brain. 1984;107:899.
  • Pavlides C, Miyashita E, Asanuma H. Projection from the sensory to the motor cortex is important in learning motor skills in the monkey. J Neuro-physiol. 1993; 70(2): 733–741.
  • Kusoffsky A, Wadell I, Nuksson BY. The relationship between sensory impairment and motor recovery in patients with hemiplegia. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1982;14:27–32.
  • La Joie WJ, Reddy NM, Melvin JL. Somato-sensory evoked potentials: their predictive value in right hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1982;63(5):223–226.
  • Chester CS, McLaren CE. Somatosensory evoked response and recovery from stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1989; 70(7):520–525.
  • Winward CE, Halligan PW, Wade DT. Current prac-tice and clinical relevance of somatosensory assess-ment after stroke. Clin Rehabil. 1999;13(1):48–55.
  • Reding MJ, Potes E. Rehabilitation outcome follow-ing initial unilateral hemispheric stroke. Life Table Analysis Approach. Stroke. 1988;19:1354–1358.
  • Fang Y, Chen X, Li H, Lin J, Huang R, Zeng J. A study on additional early physiotherapy after stroke and factors affecting functional recovery. Clin Rehabil. 2003;17(6):608–617.
  • Kwakkel G, Wagenaar RC, Kollen BJ, Lankhorst GJ. Predicting disability in stroke-a critical review of the literature. Age and Ageing. 1996;25(6):479–489.
  • Welmer A-K, von Arbin M, Murray V, Widen Hol-mqvist L, Sommerfeld DK. Determinants of mobil-ity and self-care in older people with stroke: impor-tance of somatosensory and perceptual functions. Phys Ther. 2007;87(12):1633–1641.
  • Stern PH, McDowell F, Miller JM, Robinson M. Factors influencing stroke rehabilitation. Stroke. 1971;2:213–218.
  • Patel AT, Duncan PW, Lai SM, Studenski S. The relation between impairments and functional out-comes poststroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81(10):1357–1363.
  • Niam S, Cheung W, Sullivan P, Kent S, Gu X. Bal-ance and physical impairments after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:1227–1233.
  • Han L, Law-Gibson D, Reding M. Key neurological impairments influence function-related group out-comes after stroke. Stroke. 2002;33:1920–1924.
  • Sanchez-Blanco I, Ochoa-Sangrador C, Lopez-Munain L, Izquierdo-Sanchez M, Fermoso-Garcia J. Predictive model of functional independence in stroke patients admitted to a rehabilitation pro-gramme. Clin Rehabil. 1999;13:464–475.
  • Sheikh K, Brennan PJ, Meade TW, Smith DS, Golden-berg E. Predictors of mortality and disability in stroke. I Epidemiol Commun Health. 1983;37(1):70–74.
  • Appelros P, Terent A. Characteristics of the Nation-al Institute of Health Stroke Scale: results from a population-based stroke cohort at baseline and af-ter one year. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;17(1):21–27.
  • Appelros P, Karlsson GM, Seiger A, Nydevik I. Prog-nosis for patients with neglect and anosognosia with special reference to cognitive impairment. I Rehabil Med. 2003;35(6):254–258.
  • Gottlieb D, Kipnis M, Sister E, Medvedev V, Brill S, Vardi Y. Classification of stroke rehabilitation pa-tients with a simple impairment scale. I Neurologic Rehabil. 1997;11(4):239–243.
  • Smith DL, Akhtar AJ, Garraway WM. Propriocep-tion and spatial neglect after stroke. Age Ageing. 1983;12:63–69).
  • Sommerfeld DK, von Arbin MH. The impact of somatosensory function on activity performance and length of hospital stay in geriatric patients with stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(2):149–155.
  • Rose L, Bakal DA, Rung TS, Farn P, Weaver LE. Tactile extinction and functional status after stroke. A pre-liminary investigation. Stroke. 1994;25(10):1973–1976.
  • Duncan PW, Zorowitz R, Bates B, et al. Manage-ment of adult stroke rehabilitation care: a clinical practice guideline. Stroke. 2005;36(9):e100–el 43.
  • Hunter SM, Crome P. Hand function and stroke. Rev Clin Gerontol. 2002;12:68–81.
  • Tyson SF, Hanley M, Chillala J, Selley A, Tallis RC. Balance disability after stroke. Phys Ther. 2006;86(1):30–38.
  • Yates JS, Lai SM, Duncan PW, Studenski S. Falls in community-dwelling stroke survivors: an ac-cumulated impairments model. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2002;39(3):385–394.
  • Sorock GS, Labiner DM. Peripheral neuromuscular dysfunction and falls in an elderly cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;136(5):584–591.
  • Daviet JC, Preux PM, Salle JY, et al. Clinical factors in the prognosis of complex regional pain syn-drome type I after stroke: a prospective study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;81 (1):34–39.
  • Pertoldi S, Di Benedetto P. Shoulder-hand syn-drome after stroke. A complex regional pain syn-drome. Europa Medicophysica. 2005;41(4):283–292.
  • Cheng PT, Hong CZ. Prediction of reflex sympa-thetic dystrophy in hemiplegic patients by electromyographic study. Stroke. 1995;26(12):2277–2280.
  • Hartman-Maeir A, Soroker N, Katz N. Anosognosia for hemiplegia in stroke rehabilitation. Neuroreha-bil Neural Repair. 2001;15(3):213–222.
  • Levine DN, Calvanio R, Rinn WE. The pathogen-esis of anosognosia for hemiplegia. Neurology. 1991;41(11):1770–1781.
  • Boomkamp-Koppen HG, Visser-Meily JM, Post MW, Prevo Al. Poststroke hand swelling and oede-ma: prevalence and relationship with impairment and disability. Clin Rehabil. 2005;19(5):552–559.
  • Chang JJ, Tsau JC, Lin YT. Predictors of shoulder subluxation in stroke patients. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 1995;11 (5):250–256.
  • McClatchie G. Survey of the rehabilitation out-comes of strokes. Med J Aust. 1980;6:649–651.
  • van der Lee JFI, Wagenaar RC, Lankhorst GJ, Voge-laar TW, Deville WL, Bouter LM. Forced use of the upper extremity in chronic stroke patients: results from a single-blind randomized clinical trial [see comment]. Stroke. 1999;30(11):2369–2375.
  • Yekutiel M, Guttman E. A controlled trial of the retraining of the sensory function of the hand in stroke patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56(3):241–244.
  • Winward CE, Haligan PW, Wade DT. Somato-sensory recovery: longitudinal study of the first 6 months after unilateral stroke. Disabil Rehabil. 2007;29(4):293–299.
  • Wikstrom H, Roine RO, Aronen HJ, et al. Specific changes in somatosensory evoked magnetic fields during recovery from sensorimotor stroke. Ann Neurol. 2000;47(3):353–360.
  • Rossini PM, Tecchio F, Pizzella V, et al. On the reorganization of sensory hand areas after mono-hemispheric lesion: a functional (MEG)/anatomical (MRI) integrative study. Brain Res. 1998;782(1-2):153–166.
  • Dannenbaum RM, Dykes RW. Sensory loss in the hand after sensory stroke: therapeutic rationale. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1988;69(10):833–839.
  • Nudo RJ, Plautz EJ, Frost SB. Role of adaptive plas-ticity in recovery of function after damage to mo-tor cortex. Musde Nerve. 2001;24(8):1000–1019.
  • Ward NS, Brown MM, Thompson Al. Neural cor-relates of outcome after stroke: a cross-sectional fMRI study. Brain. 2003;126(Pt 6):1430–1448.
  • Silvestrini M, Cupini LM, Placidi F, Diomedi M, Bernardi G. Bilateral hemispheric activation in the early recovery of motor function after stroke. Stroke. 1998;29(7):1305–1310.
  • Bonita R, Beaglehole R. Recovery of motor function after stroke. Stroke. 1988;19(12):1497–1500.
  • Duncan PW, Goldstein LB, Horner RD, Landsman PB, Samsa GP, Matchar DB. Similar motor recovery of upper and lower extremities after stroke. Stroke. 1994;25(6):1181–1188.
  • Hendricks HT, van Limbeek J, Geurts AC, Zwarts MJ. Motor recovery after stroke: a systematic review of the literature. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(11):1629–1637.
  • Nudo RJ. Adaptive plasticity in motor cortex: impli-cations for rehabilitation after brain injury. J Rehabil Med. 2003(41 Suppl):7–10.
  • Gowland C. Recovery of motor function following stroke: profile and predictors. Physiother Canada. 1982;34:77–84.
  • Hendricks HT, Pasman JW, Merx J., van Limbeek J, Zwarts MJ. Analysis of recovery processes after stroke by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;20(3):188–195.
  • Zorowitz RD. Recovery patterns of shoulder sub-luxation after stroke: a six-month follow-up study. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2001;8(2):1–9.
  • Feys H, De Weerdt W, Nuyens G, van de Winckel A, Selz B, Kiekens C. Predicting motor recovery of the upper limb after stroke rehabilitation: value of a clinical examination. Physiother Res Int. 2000;5(1):1–18.
  • Carmichael ST. Plasticity of cortical projections after stroke. Neuroscientist. 2003;9(1):64–75.
  • Seitz RJ, Azari NP, Knorr U, Binkofski F, Herzog H., Freund H-J. The role of diaschisis in stroke recovery. Stroke. 1999;30(9):1844–1850.
  • Ward NS, Cohen LG. Mechanisms underlying re-covery of motor function after stroke. Arch Neurol. 2004:1844–1848.
  • Ward NS, Brown MM, Thompson AJ, Frackowiak RS. Neural correlates of motor recovery after stroke: a longitudinal fMRI study. Brain. 2003:2476–2496.
  • Page SJ, Gater DR, Bach-Y-Rita P. Reconsidering the motor recovery plateau in stroke rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004:1377–1381.
  • Werhahn KJ, Conforto AB, Kadom N, Hallett M, Cohen LG. Contribution of the ipsilateral motor cortex to recovery after chronic stroke [erratum ap-pears in Ann Neurol. 2004;55(1):148]. Ann Neurol. 2003:464–472.
  • Carey LM, Abbott DF, Egan GF, Bernhardt J, Don-nan GA. Motor impairment and recovery in the upper limb after stroke: behavioral and neuroana-tomical correlates. Stroke. 2005;36(3):625–629.
  • Winward CE, Halligan PW, Wade DT. The River-mead Assessment of Somatosensory Performance (RASP): standardization and reliability data. Clin Rehabil. 2002;16(5):523–533.
  • Collen FM, Wade DT, Robb GF, Bradshaw CM. The Rivermead Mobility Index: a further development of the Rivermead Motor Assessment. Int Disabil Studies. 1991;13(2):50–54.
  • Carey LM, Abbott DF, Puce A, Jackson GD, Synge-niotis A., Donnan GA.. Reemergence of activation with poststroke somatosensory recovery: a serial fMRI case study. Neurology. 2002;59(5):749–752.
  • Lundgren J, Flodstrom K, Sjogren K, Liljequist B, Fugl-Meyer AR. Site of brain lesion and functional capacity in rehabilitated hemiplegics. Scand J Reha-bil Med. 1982;14(3):141–143.
  • Winward CE, Halligan PW, Wade DT. Somatosen-sory assessment after central nerve damage: the need for standardized clinical measures. Phys Ther Rev. 1999;4(1):21–28.
  • Lincoln NB, Crow IL, Jackson JM, Waters GR, Ad-ams SA. The unreliability of sensory assessments. Clin Rehabil. 1991;5:273–282.
  • Tomasello F, Mariani F, Fieschi C, et al. Assess-ment of inter-observer differences in the Italian multicenter study on reversible cerebral ischemia. Stroke. 1982;13(1):32–35.
  • Lin JFI, Hsueh IP, Sheu CF, Hsieh CL. Psychomet-ric properties of the sensory scale of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment in stroke patients. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(4):391–397.
  • Carmon A. Distrubances of tactile sensitivity in patients with unilateral cerebral lesions. Cortex. 1971;7(1):83–97.
  • Winward CE, Halligan PW, Wade DT. Somatosen-sory assessment after central nerve damage: the need for standardized clinical measures. Phys Ther Rev. 1999;4(1):21–28.
  • Chen JC, Liang CC, Shaw FZ. Facilitation of sensory and motor recovery by thermal intervention for the hemiplegic upper limb in acute stroke patients: a single-blind randomized clinical trial. Stroke. 2005;36(12):2665–2669.
  • Carey LM, Oke LE, Matyas TA. Impaired limb posi-tion sense after stroke: a quantitative test for clinical use. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996;77:1271–1279.
  • Lakshmi MV, Tallis R, Ribbands M, Hollis S. Device for quantifying tactile neglect in stroke patients. Biomed Eng. 1991;13(6):516–520.
  • Dannenbaum RM, Dykes RW. Evaluating sustained touch-pressure in severe sensory deficits: meet-ing an unanswered need. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1990;71 (7):455–459.
  • Dannenbaum RM, Michaelsen SM, Desrosiers J, Levin MF. Development and validation of two new sensory tests of the hand for patients with stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2002;16(6):630–639.
  • Carey LM, Matyas TA, Oke LE. Evaluation of im-paired fingertip texture discrimination and wrist position sense in patients affected by stroke: com-parison of clinical and new quantitative measures. Hand Ther. 2002;15(1):71–82.
  • Krumlinde-Sundholm L, Eliasson AC. Compar-ing tests of tactile sensibility: aspects relevant to testing children with spastic hemiplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44(9):604–612.
  • Penta M, Tesio L, Arnould C, Zancan A, Thonnard IL. The ABILHAND Questionnaire as a measure of manual ability in chronic stroke patients. Stroke. 2001;32(7):1627–1634.
  • Lincoln NB, Jackson JM, Adams SA. Reliability and revision of the Nottingham Sensory Assessment for stroke patients. Physiotherapy. 1998;84(8):358–365.
  • Yarnell PR, Friedman BB. Left 'hemi' ADL learning and outcome: limiting factors. J Neurol Rehabil. 1987;1:125–130.
  • Moberg E. Two-point discrimination test. A valuable part of hand surgical rehabilitation, e.g. in tetraplegia. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1990;22(3):127–134.
  • Eek E, Engardt M. Assessment of the percep-tual threshold of touch (PTT) with high frequency transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (Hf/TENS) in elderly patients with stroke: a reliability study. Clin Rehabil. 2003;17:825–834
  • Sullivan JE, Hedman LD, Atchison A, Balmat A, Russell K. The perceptual threshold test using electrical stimulation to measure upper extremity sensation following stroke: validity, intra-rater reliability, and precision. Paper presented at: American Physical Therapy Association Combined Sections Meeting; 2008; Nashville, TN.
  • Carey LM, Oke LE, Matyas TA. Impaired touch discrimination after stroke: a quantiative [sic] test. J Neurol Rehabil. 1997;11(4):219–232.
  • Sartor-Glittenberg C, Powers R Quantitative mea-surement of kinesthesia following cerebral vascular accident. Physiother Canada. 1993;45(3):179–186.
  • Byl N, Leano J, Cheney LK. The Byl-Cheney-Boczai Sensory Discriminator: reliability, validity, and re-sponsiveness for testing stereognosis. J Hand Ther. 2002;15(4):315–330.
  • Gaubert CS, Mockett SR Inter-rater reliability of the Nottingham method of stereognosis assess-ment. Clin Rehabil. 2000;14:153–159.
  • Williams PS, Basso M, Case-Smith J., Nichols-Larsen DS.. Development of the Hand Active Sensation Test: reliability and validity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87(11):1471–1477
  • Gladstone DJ, Daneils CJ, Black SE. The Fugl-Meyer assessment of motor recovery after stroke: a critical review of its measurement properties. Neurorehabil Neurol Repair. 2002;16(3):232–240.
  • Lincoln NB, Jackson JM, Adams SA. Interrater reliability of the Nottingham method of stereognosis assessment. Clin Rehabil. 2000;14(2):153–159.
  • Bell-Krotoski JA. Light touch-deep pressure testing using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. In: Hunt-er JM, Schneider LH, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD, eds. Rehabilitation of the Hand: Surgery and Therapy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1990:585–593.
  • Korner-Bitensky N, Kehayia E, Tremblay N, Mazer B, Singer F, Tarasuk J. Eliciting information on differential sensation of heat in those with and without poststroke aphasia using a visual analogue scale. Stroke. 2006;37(2):471–475.
  • Kim JS, Choi-Kwon S. Discriminative sensory dysfunction after unilateral stroke. Stroke. 1996;27(4):677–682.
  • Bohannon RW. Consistency of cortical sensory im-pairment. Stroke. 1996;27(9):1696–1697.
  • Forster FM, Shields CD. Cortical sensory deficits causing disability. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1959;40:56–61.
  • Vinograd A, Taylor E, Grossman S. Sensory retrain-ing of the hemiplegic hand. Am J Occup Ther. 1962;16:246–250.
  • Van Duesen Fox J. Sutaneous stimulation:effects of selected tests of perception. Am J Occup Ther. 1964;18:53–55.
  • Goldman H. Improvement in double simultaneous stimulation perception in hemiplegic patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1966;47:681–687.
  • Anderson EK, Choy E. Parietal lobe syndromes in hemiplegia. Am J Occup Ther. 1970;24(1):13–18.
  • Fugl-Meyer AR, Jaasko L, Leyman I, Olsson S, Steglind S. The post-stroke hemiplegic patient. 1. a method for evaluation of physical performance. Scandi J Rehabil Med. 1975;71(1):13–31.
  • Cambier DC, De Corte E, Danneels LA, Witvrouw EE. Treating sensory impairments in the post-stroke upper limb with intermittent pneumatic compres-sion. Results of a preliminary trial. Clin Rehabil. 2003;17(1):14–20.
  • Byl N, Roderick J, Mohamed O, et al. Effectiveness of sensory and motor rehabilitation of the upper limb following the principles of neuroplasticity: pa-tients stable poststroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2003;17(3):176–191.
  • Lackner E, Hummelsheim H. Motor-evoked potentials are facilitated during perceptual identification of hand position in healthy subjects and stroke patients. Clin Rehabil. 2003;17(6):648–655.
  • Smania N MB, Faccioli S, Fiaschi A, Aglioti SM. Rehabilitation of somatic sensation and related deficit of motor control in patients with pure sensory stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(11):1692–1702.
  • Carey JR, Kimberley TJ, Lewis SM, et al. Analysis of fMRI and finger tracking training in subjects with chronic stroke. Brain. 2002;125(Pt 4):773–788.
  • Shirahashi I, Matsumoto S, Shimodozono M, Etoh S, Kawahira K. Functional vibratory stimulation on the hand facilitates voluntary movements of a hemiplegic upper limb in a patient with stroke. Int J Rehabil Res. 2007;30(3):227–230.
  • van Nes IJW, Latour H, Schils F, Meijer R, van KuijkA, Geurts ACH. Long-term effects of 6-week whole-body vibration on balance recovery and activities of daily living in the postacute phase of stroke: a randomized, controlled trial. Stroke. 2006;37:2331–2335.
  • Magnusson M, Johansson K, Johansson BB. Senso-ry stimulation promotes normalization of postural control after stroke. Stroke. 1994;25:1176–1180.
  • Matsumoto S, Kawahira K, Etoh S, Ikeda S, Tanaka N. Shortterm effects of thermotherapy for spastic-ity on tibial nerve F-waves in post-stroke patients. Intl Biometerol. 2006;50(4):243–250.
  • Lafosse C, Kerckhofs E, Troch M., Vandenbuss-che E.. Upper limb exteroceptive somatosensory and proprioceptive sensory afferent modulation of hemispatial neglect. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003;25(3):308–323.
  • Yavuzer G, Oken O, Atay MB, Stam HJ. Effect of sensory-amplitude electric stimulation on motor recovery and gait kinematics after stroke: a ran-domized controlled study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88(6):710–714.
  • Wu CW, Seo H-J, Cohen LG. Influence of electric somatosensory stimulation on paretic-hand func-tion in chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87(3):351–357.
  • Sonde L, Gip C, Fernaeus SE, Nilsson CG, Viitanen M. Stimulation with low frequency (1.7 Hz) trans-cutaneous electric nerve stimulation (low-tens) increases motor function of the post-stroke paretic arm. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1998;30(2):95–99.
  • Vallar G, Rusconi ML, Bernardini B. Modulation of neglect hemianesthesia by transcutaneous electrical stimulation. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1996;2(5):452–459.
  • Levin MF, Hui-Chan CW. Relief of hemiparetic spasticity by TENS is associated with improvement in reflex and voluntary motor functions. Electroen-cephalography Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;85(2):131–142.
  • Perennou DA, Leblond C, Amblard B, Micallef JP, Herisson C, Pelissier JY. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation reduces neglect-related pos-tural instability after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(4):440–448.
  • Dewald JP, Given JD, Rymer WZ. Long-lasting reductions of spasticity induced by skin electrical stimulation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng. 1996;4(4):231–242.
  • Wang RY, Tsai MW, Chan RC. Effects of surface spi-nal cord stimulation on spasticity and quantitative assessment of muscle tone in hemiplegic patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;77(4):282–287.
  • Park CL, O'Neill PA, Martin DF. A pilot exploratory study of oral electrical stimulation on swallow func-tion following stroke: an innovative technique. Dysphagia. 1997;12(3):161–166.
  • Worms G, Matjacic Z, Gollee H, Cikajlo I, Goljar N, Hunt KJ. Dynamic balance training with sensory electrical stimulation in chronic stroke patients. Conference Proceedings: Annual International Con-ference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine ST Biology Society. 2006;1: 2150–2153.
  • Tyson S. Use of transcutaneous nerve stimulation to treat sensory loss after stroke. Physiother Res Int. 2003;8(1):53–57.
  • Conforto AB, Cohen LG, Santos RLD, Scaff M, Marie SKN. Effects of somatosensory stimulation on motor function in chronic cortico-subcortical strokes. J Neurol. 2007;254(3):333–339.
  • Celnik P, Hummel F, Harris-Love M., Wolk R., Cohen LG.. Somatosensory stimulation enhances the effects of training functional hand tasks in pa-tients with chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88(11):1369–1376.
  • Peurala SH, Pitkanen K, Sivenius J, Tarkka IM. Cu-taneous electrical stimulation may enhance sen-sorimotor recovery in chronic stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2002;16(7):709–716.
  • Sullivan JE, Hedman LD. Effects of home-based sensory and motor amplitude electrical stimulation on arm dysfunction in chronic stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21(2):142–150.
  • Sullivan JE, Hedman LD. A home program of sensory and neuromuscular electrical stimula-tion integrated with upper-limb task practice in a patient who is stable after a stroke. Phys Ther. 2004;84(11):1045–1054.
  • Carey LM, Matyas TA. Training of somatosen-sory discrimination after stroke: facilitation of stimulus generalization. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;84(6):428–432.
  • Hillier SA, Dunsford AB. A pilot study of sensory retraining for the hemiparetic foot post-stroke. Int I Rehabil Res. 2006;29(3):237–242.
  • Lynch EA, Hillier SL, Stiller K, Campanella RR, Fisher PH. Sensory retraining of the lower limb after acute stroke: a randomized controlled pilot trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88(9):1101–1107.
  • Maravita A, Clarke K, Husain M, Driver J. Active tool use with the contralesional hand can reduce cross-modal extinction of touch on that hand. Neurocase. 2002;8(6):411–416.
  • Floel A, Nagorsen U, Werhahn KJ, et al. Influence of somatosensory input on motor function in patients with chronic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2004;56(2):206–212.
  • Druschky K, Kaltenhauser M, Hummel C, et al. Post-apoplectic reorganization of cortical areas processing passive movement and tactile stimula-tion-a neuromagnetic case study. Neuroreport. 2002;13(18):2581–2586.
  • Morioka S, Yagi F. Effects of perceptual learning exercises on standing balance using a hardness discrimination task in hemiplegic patients follow-ing stroke: a randomized controlled pilot trial. Clin Rehabil. 2003;17(6):600–607.
  • Ng SSM, Hui-Chan CWY. Transcutaneous electri-cal nerve stimulation combined with task-related training improves lower limb functions in subjects with chronic stroke. Stroke. 2007;38:2953–2959.
  • Johansson K, Lindgren I, Widner H, Wiklund I, Johansson BB. Can sensory stimulation improve the functional outcome in stroke patients? Neurology. 1993;43(11).
  • Dechaumont-Palacin S, Marque P, De Boisse-zon X, et al. Neural correlates of proprioceptive integration in the contralesional hemisphere of very impaired patients shortly after a subcortical stroke: an fMRI study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22(2):154–165
  • Stinear CM, Alan Barber P, Coxon JP, Fleming MK, Byblow WD. Priming the motor system enhances the effects of upper limb therapy in chronic stroke. Brain. In press. Advanced access publication Janu-ary 5,2005.
  • Peurala SH, Pitkanen K, Sivenius J, Tarkka IM. Cutaneous electrical stimulation may enhance sen-sorimotor recovery in chronic stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2002;16(7):709–716.
  • Giaquinto S, Fraioli L. Enhancement of the somatosensory N140 component during at-tentional training after stroke. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;114(2):329–335.
  • Sullivan JE, Hedman LD. Use of a home based program of electrical stimulation to improve im-pairment and function in the upper extremity of subjects with chronic post-stroke hemiparesis: pre-liminary data. Poster presentation Feinberg Medi-cal School, Northwestern University All Campus Research Day, 2004; Chicago, IL.
  • Freed ML, Freed L, Chatburn RL, Christian M. Electrical stimulation for swallowing disorders caused by stroke. Respiratory Care. 2001;46(5):466–474.
  • Dannenbaum RM, Jones LA. The assessment and treatment of patients who have sensory loss fol-lowing cortical lesions. J Hand Ther. 1993;6(2):130–138.
  • Rosenkranz K, Rothwell JC, Rosenkranz K, Rothwell JC. Spatial attention affects sensorimotor reor-ganisation in human motor cortex. Exp Brain Res. 2006;170(1):97–108.
  • Johansen-Berg H, Christensen V, Woolrich M, Matthews PM. Attention to touch modulates activity in both primary and secondary somatosensory areas. Neuroreport. 2000;11(6):1237–1241.
  • Liepert J, Hamzei F, WeiIler C. Motor cortex disin-hibition of the unaffected hemisphere after acute stroke. Muscle Nerve. 2000;23(11):1761–1763.
  • Murase N, Duque J, Mazzocchio R, Cohen LG. Influence of interhemispheric interactions on motor function in chronic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2004;55(3):400–409.
  • Carey LM, Abbott DF, Egan GF, et al. Evolution of brain activation with good and poor motor recovery after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2006;20(1):24–41.
  • Manganotti P, Patuzzo S, Cortese F, Palermo A, Smania N, Fiaschi A. Motor disinhibition in af-fected and unaffected hemisphere in the early period of recovery after stroke. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113(6):936–943.
  • Butefisch CM, Kleiser R, Seitz RJ. Post-lesional cerebral reorganisation: evidence from functional neuroimaging and transcranial magnetic stimula-tion. J Physiology-Paris. 2006;99(4-6):437–454.
  • Dobkin BH, Dobkin BH. Do electrically stimulated sensory inputs and movements lead to long-term plasticity and rehabilitation gains? Curr Opin Neu-rol. 2003;16(6):685–691.
  • Radovanovic S, Korotkov A, Ljubisavljevic M, et al. Comparison of brain activity during different types of proprioceptive inputs: a positron emission to-mography study. Exp Brain Res. 2002;143(3):276–285.
  • Ridding MC, McKay DR, Thompson PD, Miles TS. Changes in corticomotor representations induced by prolonged peripheral nerve stimulation in hu-mans. Clin Neurophysiol. 2001:1461–1469.
  • Wu CW, van Gelderen P, Hanakawa T, et al. Enduring representational plasticity after somatosensory stimulation. Neuroimage. 2005;27(4):872–884.
  • Carel C, Loubinoux I, Boulanouar K, et al. Neural substrate for the effects of passive training on sensorimotor cortical representation: a study with functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy subjects. J Cerebral Blood Row Metab. 2000;20(3):478–484.
  • Rosenkranz K, Rothwell JC. Differential effect of muscle vibration on intracortical inhibitory circuits in humans. Physiol. 2003;551(Pt 2):649–660.
  • Ridding MC, Brouwer B, Miles TS, Pitcher JB, Thompson PD. Changes in muscle responses to stimulation of the motor cortex induced by peripheral nerve stimulation in human subjects. Exploratory Brain Res. 2000:135–143.
  • Lewis GN, Byblow WD, Carson RG. Phasic modulation of corticomotor excitability during passive movement of the upper limb: effects of move-ment frequency and muscle specificity. Brain Res. 2001;900(2):282–294.
  • Kaelin-Lang A, Luft AR, Sawaki L, Burstein AH, Sohn YH, Cohen LG. Modulation of human corticomo-tor excitability by somatosensory input. I Physiol. 2002;540(Pt 2):623–633.
  • Fraser C, Power M, Hamdy S, et al. Driving plasticity in human adult motor cortex is associated with improved motor function after brain injury. Neuron. 2002;34(5):831–840.
  • McKay D, Brooker R, Giacomin P, Ridding M, Miles T. Time course of induction of increased human motor cortex excitability by nerve stimulation. Neuroreport. 2002;13(10):1271–1273.
  • Miles TS. Reorganization of the human motor cortex by sensory signals: a selective review. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2005;32(1-2):128–131.
  • Sawaki L, Wu CW, Kaelin-Lang A, et al. Effects of so-matosensory stimulation on use-dependent plastic-ity in chronic stroke. Stroke. 2006;37(1):246–247.
  • Lewis GN, Byblow WD. The effects of repetitive proprioceptive stimulation on corticomotor repre-sentation in intact and hemiplegic individuals. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115(4):765–773.
  • Sonde L, Bronge L, Kalimo H, Viitanen M. Can the site of brain lesion predict improved motor func-tion after low-TENS treatment on the post-stroke paretic arm? Clin Rehabil. 2001;15(5):545–551.
  • Luft AR, Waller S, Forrester L, et al. Lesion location alters brain activation in chronically impaired stroke survivors. Neuroimage. 2004;21(3):924–935.
  • Rao SM, Bandettini PA, Binder JR, et al. Relationship between finger movement rate and functional magnetic resonance signal change in human pri-mary motor cortex. J Cerebral Blood Row Metab. 1996;16(6):1250–1254.
  • Schlaug G, Sanes IN, Thangaraj V, et al. Cerebral activation covaries with movement rate. Neurore-port. 1996;7(4):879–883.
  • Smith GV, Alon G, Roys SR, Gullapalli RP. Func-tional MRI determination of a dose-response relationship to lower extremity neuromuscular electrical stimulation in healthy subjects. Exp Brain Res. 2003;150(1):33–39.
  • Backes WH, Mess WH, van Kranen-Mastenbroek V, Reulen JR Somatosensory cortex responses to me-dian nerve stimulation: fMRI effects of current am-plitude and selective attention. Clin Neurophysiol. 2000;111(10):1738–1744.
  • Jousmaki V, Forss N. Effects of stimulus intensity on signals from human somatosensory cortices. Neuroreport. 1998;9(15):3427–3431.
  • Panizza M, Nilsson J, Roth BJ, Basser PJ, Hallett M. Relevance of stimulus duration for activation of motor and sensory fibers: implications for the study of H-reflexes and magnetic stimula-tion. Electroencephalography Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;85(1):22–29.
  • Aimonetti J-M, Nielsen JB. Changes in intracortical excitability induced by stimulation of wrist affer-ents in man. Physiology. 2001;534(3):891–902.
  • Knash ME, Kido A, Gorassini M, Chan KM, Stein RB. Electrical stimulation of the human com-mon peroneal nerve elicits lasting facilitation of cortical motor-evoked potentials. Exp Brain Res. 2003;153(3):366–377.
  • Tinazzi M, Zarattini S, Valeriani M, et al. Long-lasting modulation of human motor cortex fol-lowing prolonged transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) of forearm muscles: evidence of reciprocal inhibition and facilitation. Exp Brain Res. 2005;161(4):457–464.
  • Ridding MC, Uy J. Changes in motor cortical excitability induced by paired associative stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;114(8):1437–1444.
  • Godde B, Spengler F, Dinse HR. Associative pairing of tactile stimulation induces somatosensory cortical reorganization in rats and humans. Neuro-report. 1996;8(1 ):281–285.
  • Hodzic A, Veit R, Karim AA, Erb M, Godde B. Im-provement and decline in tactile discrimination behavior after cortical plasticity induced by passive tactile coactivation. J Neurosci. 2004;24(2):442–446.
  • McDonnell MN, Hillier SL, Miles TS, Thompson PD, Ridding MC. Influence of combined afferent stimu-lation and task-specific training following stroke: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21 (5):435–443.
  • Castel-Lacanal E, Gerdelat-Mas A, Marque P, et al. Induction of cortical plastic changes in wrist mus-cles by paired associative stimulation in healthy subjects and post-stroke patients. Exp Brain Res. 2007;180(1):113–122.
  • McKay DR, Ridding MC, Thompson PD, TS. M. Induction of persistent changes in the organisation of the human motor cortex. Exp Brain Res. 2002;143(3):342–349.
  • Ridding MC, Taylor IL. Mechanisms of motor-evoked potential facilitation following prolonged dual peripheral and central stimulation in humans. I Physiol. 2001:623–631.
  • Stefan K, Kunesch E, Cohen LG, Benecke R, Classen J. Induction of plasticity in the human motor cortex by paired associative stimulation. Brain. 2000;123(3):572–584.
  • Zittel S, Bäumer T, Liepert J. Modulation of intracortical facilitatory circuits of the human primary motor cortex by digital nerve stimulation. Exp Brain Res. 2007;176(3):425–431.
  • Nelles G, Spiekermann G, Jueptner M, et al. Reorganization of sensory and motor systems in hemiplegic stroke patients. A positron emission to-mography study. Stroke. 1999;30(8):1510–1516.
  • Lotze M, Braun C, Birbaumer N, Anders S, Cohen LG. Motor learning elicited by voluntary drive. Brain. 2003;126(4):866–872.
  • Perez MA, Lungholt BK, Nyborg K, Nielsen JB. Motor skill training induces changes in the excitability of the leg cortical area in healthy humans. Exp Brain Res. 2004;159(2):197–205.
  • Kaelin-Lang A, Sawaki L, Cohen LG. Role of voluntary drive in encoding an elementary motor memory. J Neurophysiol. 2005;93(2):1099–1103.
  • Renner C, Schubert M, Hummelscheim H. Differential effect o repetitive hand movements upon intracortical excitbility in cortical and subcortical strokes. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;118:e85.
  • Duncan PW, Probst N, Nelson SG. Reliability of the Fugl-Meyer assessment of sensorimotor recovery following cerebrovascu la r accident. Phys Ther. 1983;63:1606–1610.
  • Sonde L, Kalimo H, Fernaeus SE, Viitanen M. Low TENS treatment on post-stroke paretic arm: a three-year follow-up. Clin Rehabil. 2000;14(1):14–19.
  • Conforto AB, Kaelin-Lang A, Cohen LG. Increase in hand muscle strength of stroke patients after so-matosensory stimulation. Ann Neurol. 2002:122–125.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.