Driving Motor Recovery After Stroke

REFERENCES

• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Clinical Trial Planning Grants to Guide Timing, Intensity, and Duration of Rehabiltiation for Stroke and Hip Fracture. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Black J, Isaacs K, Anderson B, Alcantara A, Greenough W. Learning causes synaptogenesis, whereas motor activity causes angiogenesis, in cerebellar cortex of adult rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1990:5568–5572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyer-Lea A, Matthews PM. Distinguishable brain activation networks for short- and long-term motor skill learning. J Neurophysiol. 2005;94(1):512–518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones TA, Chu CJ, Grande LA, Gregory AD. Motor skills training enhances lesion-induced structural plasticity in the motor cortex of adult rats. Neurosci. 1999;19(22):10153–10163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karni A, Meyer G, Rey-Hipolito C, et al. The acquisition of skilled motor performance: Fast and slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998;95(3):861–868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Milliken GW, Jenkins WM, Merzenich MM. Use-dependent alterations of movement representations in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys. J Neurosci. 1996;16(2):785–807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puttemans V, Wenderoth N, Swinnen SP. Changes in brain activation during the acquisition of a multifrequency bimanual coordination task: From the cognitive stage to advanced levels of automaticity. J Neurosci. 2005;25(17):4270–4278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rioult-Pedotti MS, Friedman D, Hess G, Donoghue JP. Strengthening of horizontal cortical connections following skill learning. Nat Neurosci. 1998;1 (3):230–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Lussnig E, Schwarz ER, Comery TA, Greenough WT. Synaptogenesis and Fos expression in the motor cortex of the adult rat after motor skill learning. J Neurosci. 1996;16(14):4529–4535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Hogg TM, VandenBerg PM, Cooper NR, Bruneau R, Remple M. Cortical synaptogenesis and motor map reorganization occur during late, but not early, phase of motor skill learning. J Neurosci. 2004;24(3):628–633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Jones TA, Schallert T. Motor enrichment and the induction of plasticity before or after brain injury. Neurochem Res. 2003;28(11):1757–1769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown C, Li P, Boyd J, Delaney K, Murphy T. Extensive turnover of dendritic spines and vascular remodeling in cortical tissues recovering from stroke. Neurosci. 2007;27:4101–4109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan PW, Lai SM, Keighley J. Defining post-stroke recovery: Implications for design and interpretation of drug trials. Neuropharmacology. 2000;39(5):835–841.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biernaskie J, Chernenko G, Corbett D. Efficacy of rehabilitative experience declines with time after focal ischemic brain injury. J Neurosci. 2004;24(5):1245–1254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf S, Winstein C, Miller J, et al. Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke. The EXCITE randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2006;296(17):2095–2104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe BT, Lynch D, Rykman-Berland A, et al. Intensive sensorimotor arm training mediated by therapist or robot improves hemiparesis in patients with chronic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008; 22:305–310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Lee JFI, Wagenaar RC, Lankhorst GJ, Vogelaar TW, Deville WL, Bouter L M. Forced use of the upper extremity in chronic stroke patients: Results from a single-blind randomized clinical trial. Stroke. 1999;30(11):2369–2375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E, Uswatte G, King D, Morris D, Crago J, Chatterjee A. A placebo-controlled trial of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy for upper extremity after stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:1045–1049.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sterr A, Elbert T, Berthold I, Kolbel S, Rockstroh B, Taub E. Longer versus shorter daily constraint-id uced movement therapy of chronic hemiparesis: An exploratory study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(10):1374–1377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cauraugh JFI, Kim S. Two coupled motor recovery protocols are better than one: Electromyogram-triggered neuromuscular stimulation and bilateral movements. Stroke. 2002;33(6):1589–1594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen J, Marstrand P, Nielsen J. Motor skill training and strength training are associated with different plastic changes in the central nervous system. Appl Physiol. 2005;99:1558–1568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Cooper NR, VandenBerg PM. Exercise induces angiogenesis but does not alter movement representations within rat motor cortex. Brain Res. 2002;934(1):1–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plautz EJ, Milliken GW, Nudo RJ. Effects of repetitive motor training on movement representations in adult squirrel monkeys: Role of use versus learning. Neurobiol Learning Memory. 2000;74:27–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remple MS, Bruneau RM, VandenBerg PM, Goertzen C, Kleim JA. Sensitivity of cortical movement representations to motor experience: Evidence that skill learning but not strength training induces cortical reorganization. Behav Brain Res. 2001;123(2):133–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt R, Wrisberg C. Motor Learning and Performance. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Jones TA. Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: Implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. J Speech Hearing Lang Res. 2008;51:S225–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozlowski DA, James DC, Schallert T. Use-dependent exaggeration of neuronal injury after unilateral sensorimotor cortex lesions. J Neurosci. 1996;16(15):4776–4786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nedergaard M, Astrup J. Infarct rim: Effect of hyperglycemia on direct current potential and [14q2-deoxyglucose phosphorylation. J Cereb Blood Row Metab. 1986;6:607–615.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mies G, Ishimaru S, Xie Y, Seo K, Hossmann K-A. Ischemic thresholds of cerebral protein synthesis and energy state following middle cerebral artery occlusion in rat. J Cereb Blood Row Metab. 1991;11:753–761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sapolsky R, Pulsinelli W. Glucocorticoids potentiate ischemic injury to neurons therapeutic implications. Science. 1985;229:1397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dromerick A, Lang C, Powers W, et al. Very early Constraint Induced Movement Therapy (VECTORS): Phase II trial results. Presented at: International Stroke Conference; 2007; San Francisco.
   Google Scholar
• Bland ST, Pillai RN, Aronowski J, Grotta JC, Schallert T. Early overuse and disuse of the affected forelimb after moderately severe intraluminal suture occlusion of the middle cerebral artery in rats. Behav Brain Res. 2001;126(1-2):33–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leasure IL, Schallert T. Consequences of forced disuse of the impaired forelimb after unilateral cortical injury. Behav Brain Res. 2004;150(1-2):83–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Bruneau R, VandenBerg P, MacDonald E, Mulrooney R, Pocock D. Motor cortex stimulation enhances motor recovery and reduces pen-infarct dysfunction following ischemic insult. Neurol Res. 2003;25(8):789–793.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Wise BM, SiFuentes F, Milliken GW. Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct. Science. 1996;272(5269):1791–1794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy H. Distribution of practice periods in learning. Educ Psychol. 1916;7:150–162.
   Google Scholar
• Shea C, Lai Q, Black C., Park J-H. Spacing practice sessions across days benefits the learning of motor skills. Hum Movement Sci. 2000;19:737–760.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadmehr R, Holcomb H. Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation. Science. 1997;277:821–825.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadmehr R, Brashers-Krug T. Functional stages in the formation of human long-term motor memory. J Neurosci. 1997;17(1 ):409–419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RA, Lee TD. Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Walker M, Brakefield T, Morgan A, Hobson JRS. Practice with sleep makes perfect: Sleep dependent motor skill learning. Neuron. 2002;35:205–211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith C, MacNeill C. Impaired motor memory for a pursuit rotor task following Stage 2 sleep loss in college students. J Sleep Res. 1994;3:206–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huber R, Ghilardi M, Massimini M, G T. Local sleep and learning. Nature. 2004;430:78–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fogel S, Smith C. Learning-dependent changes in sleep spindles and Stage 2 sleep. J Sleep Res. 2006;15:250–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song S, Howard J Jr, Howard D. Sleep does not benefit probabilistic motor sequence learning. Neurosci. 2007;27:12475–12483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milner C, Fogel S, Cote K. Habitual napping moderates motor performance improvements following a short daytime nap. Biol Psychol. 2006;73:141–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer R, Gouw A, Ivry R. Age-related decline of sleep-dependent consolidation. Learn Mem. 2007;14:480–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espiritu J. Aging-related sleep changes. Clin Geriatr Med. 2008;24:1–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbison J, Ford G, James O, Gibson G. Sleep-disordered breathing following acute stroke. Q1/14. 2002;95: 741–747.
   Google Scholar
• Dinse H. Cortical reorganization in the aging brain. Prog Brain Res. 2006;157:57–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E, Uswatte G, Mark W, Morris D. The learned nonuse phenomenon: Implications for rehabilitation. Europa Medicophysica. 2006;42:241–255.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taub E. Movement in nonhuman primates deprived of somatosensory feedback. Exerc Sports Sci Rev. 1977;4:335–374.
   Google Scholar
• Taub E, Berman A. Movement and learning in the absence of sensory feedback. In: Freedman SJ, ed. The Neuropsychology of Spatially Oriented Behavior. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press; 1968:173–192.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf SL, Lecraw DE, Barton LA, Jann BB. Forced use of hemiplegic upper extremities to reverse the effect of learned nonuse among chronic stroke and head-injured patients. Exp Neurol. 1989;104(2):125–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub E, Miller NE, Novack TA, et al. Technique to improve chronic motor deficit after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(4):347–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris D, Taub E, Mark VW. Constraint-induced movement therapy: Characterizing the intervention protocol. Europa Medicophysica. 2006;42:257–268.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bonaiuti D, Rebasti L, Sioli P. The Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials on the adult stroke patients. Europa Medicophysica. 2007;43:139–146.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liepert J, Uhde I, Graf S., Leidner 0, Weiller C. Motor cortex plasticity during forced-use therapy in stroke patients: A preliminary study. J Neurol. 2001;248(4):315–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liepert J. Motor cortex excitability in stroke before and after constraint-induced movement therapy. Cog Behav Neurol. 2006; 19(1 ):41–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy CE, Nichols DS, Schmalbrock PM, Keller P, Chakeres DW. Functional MRI evidence of cortical reorganization in upper-limb stroke hemiplegia treated with constraint-induced movement therapy. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;80:4–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mark VW, Taub E, Morris DM. Neuroplasticity and Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy. Europa Medicophysica. 2006;42:269–284.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Lee J, Wagenaar R, Lankhorst G, Vogelaar T, Devine W, Bouter LN. Forced use of the upper extremity in chronic stroke patients: Results from a single-blind randomized clinical trial. Stroke. 1999;30:2369–2375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caimmi M, Carda S, Giovanzana C, et al. Using kinematic analysis to evaluate Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in chronic stroke patients. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;22:31–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu C, Chen C, Tsai W, Lin K, Chou S. A randomized controlled trial of modified constraint-induced movement therapy for elderly stroke survivors: Changes in motor impairment, daily functioning, and quality of life. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:273–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page S, Levine P, Leonard A, Szaflarski JP, Kissela BM. Modified Constraint-Induced Therapy in chronic stroke: Results of a single-blinded Randomized Controlled Trial. Phys Ther. 2008;88:1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Dettmers C, Teske U, Hamzei F, Uswatte G, Taub E, Weiller C. Distributed form of constraint-induced movement therapy improves functional outcome and quality of life after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(2):204–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dromerick AW, Edwards DF, Hahn M. Does the application of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy during acute rehabilitation reduce arm impairment after ischemic stroke? Stroke. 2000;31:2984–2988
   Google Scholar
• Lum PS, Taub E, Schwandt D, Postman M, Hardin P, Uswatte G. Automated Constraint-Induced Therapy Extension (AutoCITE) for movement deficits after stroke. Rehabil Res Dev. 2004;41 (3A):249–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobkin BH. Interpreting the randomized clinical trial of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy. Arch Neurol. 2007;64:336–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krebs HI, Hogan N, Aisen ML, Volpe BT. Robot-aided neurorehabilitation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng. 1998;6(1 ):75–87.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lum P, Burgar C, Shor P. Evidence for improved muscle activation patterns after retraining of reaching movements with the MIME robotic system in subjects with post-stroke hemiparesis. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2004;12:186–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fasoli S, Krebs H, Stein J, Frontera W, Hogan N. Effects of robotic therapy on motor impairment and recovery in chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(4):477–482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colombo R, Pisano F, Micera S, et al. Robotic techniques for upper limb evaluation and rehabilitation of stroke patients. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2005;13(3):311–324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Kollen B, Krebs HI. Effects of robot-assisted therapy on upper limb recovery after stroke: A systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007; Epub ahead of press.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinkensmeyer D, Kahn L, Averbuch M., McKenna-Cole A., Schmit B, Rymer WZ. Understanding and treating arm movement impairment after chronic brain injury: Progress with the ARM Guide. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2000;37(6):653–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum P, Burgar C, Shor P, Majmundar M, Van der Loos M. Robot-assisted movement training compared with conventional therapy techniques for the rehabilitation of upper-limb motor function after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(7):952–959.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn L, Lum P, Rymer W, Reinkensmeyer D. Robot-assisted movement training for the stroke-impaired arm: Does it matter what the robot does? Rehabil Res Dev. 2006;43(5):619–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prange G, Jannink M, Groothuis-Oudshoorn C., Hermens H., ljzerman M. Systematic review of the effect of robot-aided therapy on the recovery of the hemiparetic arm after stroke. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2006;43:171–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masiero S, Celia A, Rosati G, Armani M. Robotic-assisted rehabilitation of the upper limb after acute stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:142–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe B, Krebs H, Hogan N, Edelstein L, Diels C, Aisen M. A novel approach to stroke rehabilitation. Robot-aided sensorimotor stimulation. Neurology. 2000;54:1938–1944.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe BT, Krebs HI, Hogan N, Edelsteinn L, Diels CM, Aisen ML. Robot training enhanced motor outcome in patients with stroke maintained over 3 years. Neurology. 1999;53(8):1874–1876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein J, Krebs HI, Frontera WR, Fasoli SE, Hughes R, Hogan N. Comparison of two techniques of robot-aided upper limb exercise training after stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;83(9):720–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu CW, van Gelderen P, Hanakawa T, Yaseen Z, Cohen LG. Enduring representational plasticity after somatosensory stimulation. Neuroimage. 2005;27(4):872–884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae J, Hart R. Comparison of discomfort associated with surface and percutaneous intramuscular electrical stimulation for persons with chronic hemiplegia. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;77(6):516–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae J, Bethoux F, Bohine T, Dobos L, Davis T, Friedl A. Neuromuscular stimulation for upper extremity motor and functional recovery in acute hemiplegia. Stroke. 1998;29(5):975–979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimberley TJ, Lewis SM, Auerbach EJ, Dorsey LL, Lojovich JM, Carey JR. Electrical stimulation driving functional improvements and cortical changes in subjects with stroke. Exp Brain Res. 2004;154(4):450–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linn SL, Granat MH, Lees KR. Prevention of shoulder subluxation after stroke with electrical stimulation. Stroke. 1999;30:963–968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonnell MN, Hillier SL, Miles TS, Thompson PD, Ridding MC. Influence of combined afferent stimulation and task-specific training following stroke: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21 (5):435–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell J, Pandyan AD, Granat M, Cameron M, Stott DJ. Electrical stimulation of wrist extensors in poststroke hemiplegia. Stroke. 1999;30(7):1384–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu DT, Chae J, Walker ME, Hart RL, Petroski GF. Comparing stimulation-induced pain during percutaneous (intramuscular) and transcutaneous neuromuscular electric stimulation for treating shoulder subluxation in hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(6):756–760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yozbatiran N, Donmez B, Kayak N, Bozan O. Electrical stimulation of wrist and fingers for sensory and functional recovery in acute hemiplegia. Clin Rehabil. 2006;20(1):4–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kroon JM, Lankhorst G, Zilvold G. Electrical stimulation of the upper limb in stroke: Stimulation of the extensors of the hand versus alternate stimulation of the flexors and extensors. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;83:592–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Church C, Price C, Pandyan AD, Huntley S, Curless R, Rodgers H. Randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effect of surface neuromuscular electrical stimulation to the shoulder after acute stroke. Stroke. 2006;37(12):2995–3001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page SJ, Chae J. Surface electrical stimulation for the affected shoulder after stroke: Reconsidering the findings of church and colleagues. Stroke. 2007;38(8):e71; author reply e72–73.
   Google Scholar
• Chae J, Ng A, Yu DT, et al. Intramuscular electrical stimulation for shoulder pain in hemiplegia: Does time from stroke onset predict treatment success? Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21 (6):561–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae J, Yu DT, Walker ME, et al. Intramuscular electrical stimulation for hemiplegic shoulder pain: A 12-month follow-up of a multiple-center, randomized clinical trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;84(11):832–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ring H, Rosenthal N. Controlled study of neuroprosthetic functional electrical stimulation in sub-acute post-stroke rehabilitation. J Rehabil Med. 2005;37(1):32–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedman LD, Sullivan JE, Hilliard MJ, Brown DM. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation during task-oriented exercise improves arm function for an individual with proximal arm dysfunction after stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;86(7):592–596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendricks HT, German MJ, de Kroon JR, Groen FA, Zilvold G. Functional electrical stimulation by means of the 'Ness Handmaster Orthosis' in chronic stroke patients: An exploratory study. Clin Rehabil. 2001;15(2):217–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alon G, Sunnerhagen KS, Geurts AC, Ohry A. A home-based,self-ad ministered stimulation program to improve selected hand functions of chronic stroke. NeuroRehabilitation. 2003;18(3):215–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alon G, Levitt AF, McCarthy PA. Functional electrical stimulation enhancement of upper extremity functional recovery during stroke rehabilitation: A pilot study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21(3):207–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alon G, McBride K, Ring H. Improving selected hand functions using a noninvasive neuroprosthesis in persons with chronic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2002;11(2):99–106.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gritsenko V, Prochazka A. A functional electric stimulation-assisted exercise therapy system for hemiplegic hand function. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(6):881–885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalczewski J, Gritsenko V, Ashworth N, Ellaway P, Prochazka A. Upper-extremity functional electric stimulation-assisted exercises on a workstation in the subacute phase of stroke recovery. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88(7):833–839.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popovic MB, Popovic DB, Sinkjaer T, Stefanovic A, Schwirtlich L. Clinical evaluation of Functional Electrical Therapy in acute hemiplegic subjects. Rehabil Res Dev. 2003;40(5):443–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popovic DB, Popovic MB, Sinkjaer T, Stefanovic A, Schwirtlich L. Therapy of paretic arm in hemiplegic subjects augmented with a neural prosthesis: A cross-over study. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2004;82(8-9):749–756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hara Y, Ogawa S, Muraoka Y. Hybrid power-assisted functional electrical stimulation to improve hemiparetic upper-extremity function. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;85(12):977–985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan J, Hedman L. Effects of home-based sensory and motor amplitude electrical stimulation on arm dysfunction in chronic stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21:142–150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francisco G, Chael, Chawla H, et al. Electromyog ram-triggered neuromuscular stimulation for improving the arm function of acute stroke survivors: A randomized pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79(5):570–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cauraugh J, Light K, Kim S, Thigpen M, Behrman A. Chronic motor dysfunction after stroke: Recovering wrist and finger extension by electromyography-triggered neuromuscular stimulation. Stroke. 2000;31(6):1360–1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armagan 0, Tasciog lu F, Oner C. Electromyographic biofeedback in the treatment of the hemiplegic hand: A placebo-controlled study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;82(11):856–861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabr U, Levine P, Page SJ. Home-based electromyography-triggered stimulation in chronic stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2005;19(7):737–745.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickstein R, Hocherman S, Pillar T, Shaham R. Stroke rehabilitation: Three exercise therapy approaches. Phys Ther. 1986;66(8):1233–1238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langhammer B, Stranghelle J. Bobath or Motor Relearning Programme? A comparison of two different approaches of physiotherapy in stroke rehabilitation: A randomized controlled study. Clin Rehabil. 2000;14:361–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Vliet P, Lincoln N, Foxall A. Comparison of Bobath based and movement science based treatment for stroke: A randomised controlled trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:503–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butefisch C, Hummelsheim H, Denzler P., Mauritz K-H. Repetitive training of isolated movements improves the outcome of motor rehabilitation of the centrally paretic hand. J Neurol Sci. 1995;130:59–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hafsteinsdottir T, Algra A, Kappelle L, Grypdonck M. Neurodevelopmental treatment after stroke: A comparative study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76(6):788–792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Platz T, van Kaick S, Engel U, Pinkowski C, Kalok S, Pause M. Impairment-oriented training or Bobath therapy for severe arm paresis after stroke: A single-blind, multicentre randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2005;19:714–724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luke C, Dodd K, Brock K. Outcomes of the Bobath concept on upper limb recovery following stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18:888–898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelso J. Pattern formation in speech and limb movements involving many degrees of freedom. Exp Brain Res. 1986;15:105–128.
   Google Scholar
• Cardoso de Oliveira S, Gribova A, Donchin O, Bergman H, E V. Neural interactions between motor cortical hemispheres during bimanual and unimanual arm movements. Eur J Neurosci. 2001;14:1881–1896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadato N, Yonekura Y, Waki A, Yamada H, Ishii Y. Role of the supplementary motor area and the right premotor cortex in the coordination of bimanual finger movements. J Neurosci. 1997;17:9667–9674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toyokura M, Muro I, Komiya T, Obara M. Relation of bimanual coordination to activation in the sensorimotor cortex and supplementary motor area: Analysis using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Brain Res Bull. 1999;48:211–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerloff C, Andres F. Bimanual coordination and interhemispheric interaction. Acta Psychology (Amst). 2002;110:161–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuadrado M, Arias J. Bilateral movement enhances ipsilesional cortical activity in acute stroke: A pilot functional MRI study. Neurology. 2001;57:1740–1741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinear J, Byblow W. Disinhibition in the human motor cortex is enhanced by synchronous upper limb movements. J Physiol. 2002;543:307–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart KC, Cauraugh JFI, Summers JJ. Bilateral movement training and stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2006;244(1-2):89–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis GN, Byblow WD. Neurophysiological and behavioural adaptations to a bilateral training intervention in individuals following stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2004; 18(1):48–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum P, Burgar C, Van der Loos M, Shor P, Majmundar M, Yap R. MIME robotic device for upper-limb neurorehabilitation in subacute stroke subjects: A follow-up study. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2006;43(5):631–642.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudie MH, Matyas TA. Can simultaneous bilateral movement involve the undamaged hemisphere in reconstruction of neural networks damaged by stroke? Disabil Rehabil. 2000;22(1-2):23–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Platz T, Bock S, Prass K. Reduced skillfulness of arm motor behaviour among motor stroke patients with good clinical recovery: Does it indicate reduced automaticity? Can it be improved by unilateral or bilateral training? Neuropsychologia. 2001;39(7):687–698.
   Google Scholar
• Driskel J, Copper C, Moran A. Does mental practice enhance performance? J Appl Psychol. 1994;79:481–492.
   Google Scholar
• Janssen J, Sheikh A. Enhancing athletic performance through imagery an overview. In: Sheikh AA, Korn ER, eds. Imagery in Sports and Physical Performance. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company; 1994:1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Decety J. The neuropsychological basis of motor imagery. Behav Brain Res. 1996;77:45–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page SJ, Levine P, Sisto SA, Johnston MV. Mental practice combined with physical practice for upper-limb motor deficit in subacute stroke. Phys Ther. 2001;81(8):1455–1462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page S, Levine P, Leonard A. Mental practice in chronic stroke. Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2007;38:1293–1297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page S. Imagery improves upper extremity motor function in chronic stroke patients: A pilot study. Occup Then J Res. 2000;20(3):200–215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dijkerman HC, Letswaart M, Johnston M, MacWalter RS. Does motor imagery training improve hand function in chronic stroke patients? A pilot study. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(5):538–549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deschaumes-Molinaro C, Dittmar A, Vernet-Maury E. Relationship between mental imagery and sporting performance. Behav Brain Res. 1991;45:29–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trojano L, Grossi D. A critical review of mental imagery defects. Brain Cogn. 1994;24(2):213–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muelbacher W, Richards C, Ziemann U, et al. Improving hand function in chronic stroke. Arch Neurol. 2002;59:1278–1282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floel A, Nagorsen U, Werhahn KJ, et al. Influence of somatosensory input on motor function in patients with chronic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2004;56(2):206–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker-Batson D, Smith P, Curtis S, Unwin H, Greenlee R. Amphetamine paired with physical therapy accelerates motor recovery after stroke. Further evidence. Stroke. 1995;26:2254–2259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinsson L, Wahlgren N. Safety of dexamphetamine in acute ischemic stroke: A randomized, double-blind, controlled dose-escalation trial. Stroke. 2003;34:475–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gladstone D, Danells C, Armesto A, et al. Physiotherapy coupled with dextroamphetamine for rehabilitation after hemiparetic stroke: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2006;37:179–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malcolm MP, Triggs WI, Light KE, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as an adjunct to constraint-induced therapy: An exploratory randomized controlled trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;86(9):707–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Northstar Neuroscience I. Northstar Neuroscience Announces Primary Endpoint Results of EVEREST Clinical Trial. Jan. 22, 2008. Available at: http://ir.northstarneuro.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=19726761p=irol-newsArticle&ID=109840361highlight=. Accessed February 6, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Platz T, Kim I, Engel U, Pinkowski C, Eickhof C, Kutzner M. Amphetamine fails to facilitate motor performance and to enhance motor recovery among stroke patients with mild arm paresis: Interim analysis and termination of a double blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2005;23:271–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar