A Comparison of (Th,Pu)O₂ and UO₂ Fuels as Waste Forms for Direct Disposal

References

• J. P. HOLDREN, “Dangerous Surplus,” Bull. At. Sci., 50, 39 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A. R. DASTUR, A. S. GRAY, N. GAGNON, D. B. BUSS, R. A. VERRALL, P. G. LUCUTA, and H. R. ANDREWS, “Annihilation of Plutonium in CANDU Reactors,” presented at IAEA Technical Committee Mtg. Unconventional Options for Pu Disposition, held at Obninsk, Russia, November, 7-11, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• H. AKIE, T. MUROMURA, H. TAKANO, and S. MATSUURA, “A New Fuel Material for Once-Through Weapons Plutonium Burning,” Nucl. Technol., 107, 182 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. VEEDER and R. DIDSBURY, “A Catalogue of Advanced Fuel Cycles in CANDU-PHW Reactors,” AECL-8641, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1985).
   Google Scholar
• L. H. JOHNSON, D. M. LeNeveu, D. W. Shoe-Smith, D. W. OSCARSON, M. N. GRAY, R. J. LEMIRE, and N. C. GARISTO, “The Disposal of Canada’s Nuclear Fuel Waste: The Vault Model for Postclosure Assessment,” AECL-10714, COG-93-4, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1994).
   Google Scholar
• W. T. HANCOX and K. NUTTALL, “The Canadian Approach to Safe Permanent Disposal of Nuclear Fuel Waste,” Nucl. Eng. Des., 129, 109 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• D. G. BOASE and T. T. VANDERGRAAF, “The Canadian Spent Fuel Storage Canister: Some Materials Aspects,” Nucl. Technol., 32, 60 (1977).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• I. J. HASTINGS, D. H. ROSE, J. R. KELM, and D. A. IRVINE, “Air Oxidation of UO2 Fuel Fragments at 175° to 400°C,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 69, C16 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• J. NOVAK, I. J. HASTINGS, E. MIZZAN, and R. J. CHENIER, “Postirradiation Behavior of UO2 Fuel I: Elements at 220 to 250°C in Air,” Nucl. Technol., 63, 254 (1983).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• K. M. WASYWICH, W. H. HOCKING, D. W. Shoe-Smith, and P. TAYLOR, “Differences in Oxidation Behavior of Used CANDU Fuel During Prolonged Storage in Moisture-Saturated Air and Dry Air at 150°C,” Nucl. Technol., 104, 309 (1993).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• L. E. THOMAS, R. E. EINZIGER, and H. C. BUCHANAN, “Effect of Fission Products on Air-Oxidation of LWR Spent Fuel,” J. Nucl. Mater., 201, 310 (1993).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• I. COHEN and R. H. BERMAN, “A Metallographic and X-Ray Study of the Limits of Oxygen Solubility in the UO2-ThO2 System,” J. Nucl. Mater., 18, 77 (1966).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A. K. MILLER, M. BROOKS, T. Y. CHEUNG, A. TASOOJI, J. C. WOOD, J. R. KELM, B. A. SURETTE, and C. R. FROST, “Estimates of Zircaloy Integrity during Dry Storage of Spent Fuel,” EPRI NP-6387, Electric Power Research Institute (1989).
   Google Scholar
• D. LANGMUIR and J. S. HERMAN, “The Mobility of Thorium in Natural Waters at Low Temperatures,” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44, 1753 (1980).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. L. RYAN and D. RAI, “Thorium(IV) Hydrous Oxide Solubility,” Inorg. Chem., 26, 4140 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• A. R. FELMY, D. RAI, and M. J. MASON, “The Solubility of Hydrous Thorium(IV) Oxide in Chloride Media: Development of an Aqueous Ion-Interaction Model,” Radiochim. Acta, 55, 177 (1991).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R. J. LEMIRE and F. GARISTO, “The Solubility of U, Np, Pu, Th and Tc in a Geological Disposal Vault for Used Nuclear Fuel,” AECL-10009, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1989).
   Google Scholar
• R. J. LEMIRE, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Personal Communication (1994).
   Google Scholar
• N. C. GARISTO and F. GARISTO, “The Effect of Precipitation on the Long-Term Release of Radionuclides from Used Fuel,” Ann. Nucl. Energy, 13, 591 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• N. C. GARISTO and F. GARISTO, “Mass Transport-Precipitation Coupling in Finite Systems,” AECL-9562, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1988).
   Google Scholar
• D. C. KAMINENI and R. J. LEMIRE, “Thorite in Fault Zones of a Granitic Pluton, Atikokan, Canada: Implications for Nuclear Fuel Waste Disposal,” Chem. Geol., 90, 133 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• H. MATZKE, “Radiation Damage in Crystalline Insulators, Oxides and Ceramic Nuclear Fuels,” Radiat. Eff., 64, 3 (1982).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Y. EYAL and R. L. FLEISCHER, “Alpha-Recoil Damage in Thorianite and Uraninite: Effect on Dissolution and Time-Scale for Spontaneous Annealing of Damage,” Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc, 44, 687 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Y. EYAL and R. L. FLEISCHER, “Timescale of Natural Annealing in Radioactive Minerals Affects Retardation of Radiation-Damage-Induced Leaching,” Nature, 314, 518 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Y. EYAL and R. L. FLEISCHER, “Preferential Leaching and the Age of Radiation Damage from Alpha Decay in Minerals,” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 49, 1155 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• E. R. VANCE and M. GASCOYNE, “Isotopic Disequilibrium Effects in Leaching of Natural Uraninite and Thorianite,” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 51, 2593 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• H. MATZKE, “Diffusion Processes in Nuclear Fuels,” Diffusion Processes in Nuclear Materials, p. 9, R. P. AGARWALA, Ed., North Holland, Amsterdam (1992).
   Google Scholar
• M. C. NAIK, A. R. PAUL, and K. N. G. KAIMAL, “Migration and Trapping of Fission Xenon in Urania-Doped Thoria,” J. Nucl. Mater., 96, 57 (1981).
   Google Scholar
• K. N. G. KAIMAL, M. C. NAIK, and A. R. PAUL, “Effect of Irradiation and Dopant Concentration on the Migration of Xenon in Uranium Dioxide,” Metall. Mater. Proc, 1, 293 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• M. C. NAIK, “Diffusion Controlled and Burst Release of Gaseous and Volatile Fission Products from UO2 and ThO2,” Diffusion Processes in Nuclear Materials, p. 99, R. P. AGARWALA, Ed., North Holland, A msterdam (1992).
   Google Scholar
• S. SUNDER, G. D. BOYER, and N. H. MILLER, “XPS Studies of UO2 Oxidation by Alpha Radiolysis of Water at 100°C,” J. Nucl. Mater., 175, 163 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D. W. SHOESMITH and S. SUNDER, “The Prediction of Nuclear Fuel (UO2) Dissolution Rates Under Waste Disposal Conditions,” J. Nucl. Mater., 190, 20 (1992).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J. J. CRAMER and J. A. T. SMELLIE, “Final Report of the AECL/SKB Cigar Lake Analog Study,” AECL-10851, COG-93-147, SKB TR 94-04, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1994).
   Google Scholar
• G. BAYER, J. J. W. ROGERS, J. A. S. ADAMS, and U. K. HAACK, “Thorium,” Handbook of Geochemistry, Vol. II-5, K. H. WEDEPOHL, Ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1974).
   Google Scholar
• A. F. WELLS, Structural Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed., Chaps. 12 and 28, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1975).
   Google Scholar
• N. H. BRETT and A. C. FOX, “Oxidation Products of Plutonium Dioxide-Uranium Dioxide Solid Solutions in Air at 750°C,” J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 28, 1191 (1966).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. KLEYKAMP, “The Chemical State of the Fission Products in Oxide Fuels,” J. Nucl. Mater., 131, 221 (1985).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• K. MAYER, K. B. KANELLAKOPOULOS, J. NAEGELE, and L. KOCH, “On the Valency State of Americium in (U0.5Am0.5)02_x,” J. Alloys Comp., 213/214, 456 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• D. W. GREEN, J. K. FINK, and L. LEIBOWITZ, “Vapor Pressures and Vapor Compositions in Equilibrium with Hypostoichiometric Uranium-Plutonium Dioxide at High Temperatures,” High Temp.-High Pressures, 15, 205 (1983).
   Google Scholar
• P. J. BAPTISTE, “Redistribution Under a Thermal Gradient of Cations in the Mixed Oxides (U,Ce)O2 and (U,Pu)O2,” J. Nucl. Mater., 120, 316 (1984).
   Google Scholar
• S. Stroes-Gascoyne, L. H. JOHNSON, and D. M. SELLINGER, “The Relationship Between Gap Inventories of Stable Xenon, 137Cs, and 129I in Used CANDU Fuel,” Nucl. Technol., 77, 320 (1987).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• B. COX, “Pellet-Clad Interaction (PCI) Failures of Zirconium Alloy Fuel Cladding-A Review,” J. Nucl. Mater., 172, 249 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• N. CADELLI and M. LIPPENS, “Post-Irradiation Examination of Plutonium-Bearing Fuel Elements Irradiated in LWR Power Plants—A European Community Campaign,” Proc. IAEA Specialists Mtg. Improved Utilization of Water Reactor Fuel with Special Emphasis on Extended Burnups and Plutonium Recycling, Mol, Belgium, May 1984, p. 182 (1984).
   Google Scholar
• “Program of Research and Development on the Thorium Utilization in PWRs: Final Report (1979-1988),” JUEL-SPEZ-488, R. B. PINHEIRO, F. S. LAMEIRAS, M. PEEHS, and V. MALY, Eds., Kernforschungsanlage Juelich (1988).
   Google Scholar
• O. M. KATZ, “Metallography of Thoria-Based Fuel Materials,” Microstruct. Sci., 13, 151 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• H. MATZKE, “Gas Release Mechanisms in Uranium Dioxide-A Critical Review,” Radiat. Eff, 53, 219 (1980).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. B. MEIERAN and E. L. WESTERMANN, “An Evaluation of the Performance of ThO2-UO2 in a Large PWR-Type Fuel Rod Using the LIFE-THERMAL Computer Code,” Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., 27, 311 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• K. SHIBA, “Diffusion Processes in Thoria and Thorium-Based Oxides with Emphasis on Fission Fragments Irradiation Effects,” Diffusion Processes in Nuclear Materials, p. 71, R. P. AGARWALA, Ed., North Holland, Amsterdam (1992).
   Google Scholar
• I. GOLDBERG, G. L. SPAHR, J. F. GIOVENGO, and L. A. WALDMAN, “Fission Gas Release from ThO2 and ThO2-UO2 Fuels,” Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., 27, 308 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• I. GOLDBERG, G. L. SPAHR, L. S. WHITE, L. A. WALDMAN, J. F. GIOVENGO, and P. L. PFENNIGWERTH, “Fission Gas Release from Thorium Oxide and Thorium Oxide-Uranium Oxide Fuels (LWBR Development Program),” WAPD-TM-1350, Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory (1978).
   Google Scholar
• J. F. GIOVENGO, I. GOLDBERG, and C. D. SPHAR, “Fission Gas Release from ThO2-UO2 Fuel at High Burnup,” Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., 39, 379 (1981).
   Google Scholar
• A. D. SMITH, J. A. WALSWORTH, R. E. DONDERS, and P. J. FEHRENBACH, “In-Reactor Measurement of Operating Temperature in ThO2-UO2 Fuel: Effect of Pellet Microstructure,” Proc. 6th Annual Conf. Canadian Nuclear Society, Ottawa, Canada, June 2–4, 1985, p. 6.33 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• R. W. JONES, H. R. LEE, H. HAHN, J. F. WALKER, and A. CELLI, “Thoria Fuel Technology for CANDU-PHW Reactors,” Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., 27, 303 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• H. MATZKE, “The Release of Some Non-Gaseous Fission Products from CaF2, UO2 and ThO2,” J. Nucl. Mater., 23, 209 (1967).
   Google Scholar
• A. S. BAIN, J. CHRISTIE, and I. J. HASTINGS, “Performance of ThO2-UO2 Fuel Irradiated in the NRU Reactor at CRNL,” Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., 27, 307 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• H. MATZKE, “Oxygen Potential Measurements in High Burnup LWR Fuel,” J. Nucl. Mater., 223, 1 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• F. L. LISMAN, R. M. ABERNATHEY, W. J. MAECK, and J. E. REIN, “Fission Yields of Over 40 Stable and Long-Lived Fission Products for Thermal Neutron Fissioned 233U, 235U, 239PU, and 241 Pu and Fast Reactor Fissioned 235U and 239Pu,” Nucl. Sci. Eng., 42, 191 (1970).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. KLEYKAMP, “The Chemical State of Fission Products in Oxide Fuels at Different Stages of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle,” Nucl. Technol., 80, 412 (1988).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. KLEYKAMP, “Post-Irradiation Examinations and Compositions of the Residues from Nitric Acid Dissolution Experiments of High-Burnup LWR Fuel,” J. Nucl. Mater., 171, 181 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• L. H. JOHNSON, B. W. GOODWIN, S. C. SHEPPARD, J. C. TAIT, D. M. WUSCHKE, and C. C. DAVISON, “Radiological Assessment of 36C1 in the Disposal of Used CANDU Fuel,” AECL-11213, COG 94-527, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1995).
   Google Scholar
• B. T. M. WILLIS, “Crystallographic Studies of Anion-Excess Uranium Oxides,” J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans., II, 83, 1073 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• H. MATZKE, “Atomic Transport Properties of UO2 and Mixed Oxides (U,Pu)O2,” J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans., II, 83, 1121 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• M. AKABORI and K. FUKUDA, “Release Behaviour of Cesium in Irradiated (Th,U)02,” J. Nucl. Mater., 186, 47 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• S. G. PRUSSIN, D. R. OLANDER, W. K. LAU, and L. HANSSON, “Release of Fission Products (Xe, I, Te, Cs, Mo and Tc) from Polycrystalline UO2,” J. Nucl. Mater., 154, 25 (1988).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M. ISHIDA and Y. KOREI, “Modelling and Parametric Studies of the Effect of Pu-Mixing Heterogeneity on Fission Gas Release from Mixed Oxide Fuels of LWRs and FBRs,” J. Nucl. Mater., 210, 203 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• I. J. HASTINGS, A. CELLI, M. ONOFREI, and M. L. SWANSON, “Irradiation Performance of (Th,U)O2 Fuel Designed for Advanced Cycle Applications,” AECL-7697, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (1982).
   Google Scholar
• M. ONOFREI, “Sol-Gel Extrusion Process for Fabrication of (Th,U)O2 Recycle Fuel,” J. Nucl. Mater., 137, 207 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• A. D. LANE, P. G. BOCZAR, B. N. TOWNES, H. C. SUK, Y. O. LEE, C. J. JEONG, and K. S. SIM, “CAN-FLEX: A Fuel Bundle to Facilitate the Use of Enrichment and Fuel Cycles in CANDU Reactors,” Proc. IAEA Technical Committee Mtg. Advances in Heavy Water Reactors, Toronto, Canada, June 7–10, 1993.
   Google Scholar