22
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Miscellaneous

Current concepts in the management of long QT syndrome

, &
Pages 633-643 | Published online: 25 Feb 2005

Bibliography

  • SCHWARTZ PJ, LOCATI EH, NAPOLITANO C et al: The long QT syndrome. In: Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. Zipes, DP, Jalife J (Eds), WB Saunders Co., Philadelphia (1995):788–811.
  • CHIANG CE, RODEN DM: The long QT syndromes: genetic basis and clinical implications. j Am. Coll. Cardiol. (2000) 36:1–12.
  • MARBAN E: Heart failure: the electrophysiologic connection. I Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. (1999) 10:1425–1428.
  • VOLDERS PG, SIPIDO KR, VOS MA et al.: Downregulation of delayed rectifier 1‹.(-E) currents in dogs with chronic complete atrioventricular block and acquired torsades de pointes. Circulation (1999) 100:2455–2461.
  • HALKIN A, ROTH A, LURIE I et al: Pause-dependent torsade de pointes following acute myocardial infarction: a variant of the acquired long QT syndrome. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (2001) 38:1168–1174.
  • ANTZELEVITCH C, SHIMIZU M, YAN GX et al.: The M cell: its contribution to the ECG and to normal and abnormal electrical function of the heart. j Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (1999) 10:1124–1152.
  • ••Detailed description of M cells from ionicchannels to ECG manifestations.
  • RODEN DM, SPOONER PM: Inheritedlong QT syndromes: a paradigm for understanding arrhythmogenesis. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (1999) 10:1664–1683.
  • JANUARY CT, GONG Q, ZHOU Z: LongQT syndrome: cellular basis and arrhythmia mechanism in LQT2. j Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. (2000) 11:1413–1418.
  • PRIORI SG, BLOISE R, CROTTI L: Thelong QT syndrome. Europace (2001) 3:16–27.
  • KHAN IA: Long QT syndrome: diagnosisand management. Am. Heart J. (2002) 143:7–14.
  • NOBLE D, COHEN IS: The interpretation of the T wave of the electrocardiogram. Cardiovasc. Res. (1978) 12:13–27.
  • BURGESS MJ: Relation of ventricular repolarization to electrocardiographic T wave form and arrhythmia vulnerability. Am. Physiol. (1979) 236:H391–H402.
  • FRANZ MR, BARGHEER K, RAFFLENBEUL W et al.: Monophasic action potential mapping in human subjects with normal electrocardiograms: direct evidence for the genesis of the T wave. Circulation (1987) 75:379–386.
  • YAN GX, ANTZELEVITCH C: Cellular basis for the normal T wave and the electrocardiographic manifestations of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation (1998) 98:1928–1936.
  • ••Cellular basis for the generation of T waveand QT interval. The interval of TpeacTend as an index of transmural dispersion of repolarisation.
  • HIGUCHI T, NAKAYA Y: T wave polarity related to the repolarization process of epicardial and endocardial ventricular surfaces. Am. Heart j (1984) 108:290–295.
  • SIC OURI S, ANTZELEVITCH C: A subpopulation of cells with unique electrophysiological properties in the deep subepicardium of the canine ventricle: the M cell. Circ. Res. (1991) 68:1729–1741.
  • •Discovery of M cells.
  • LIU DW, ANTZELEVITCH C: Characteristics of the delayed rectifier current (IK. and IKs) in canine ventricular epicardial, midmyocardial and endocardial myocytes: a weaker IKs contributes to the longer action potential of the M cell. Circ. Res. (1995) 76:351–365.
  • •Ionic basis for M cells, epicardium and endocardium.
  • YAN GX, SHIMIZU W, ANTZELEVITCH C: The characteristics and distribution of M cells in arterially-perfused canine left ventricular wedge preparations. Circulation (1998) 98:1921–1927.
  • •Location of M cells in left ventricular wall.
  • ANTZELEVITCH C, SUN ZQ, ZHANG ZQ et al: Cellular and ionic mechanisms underlying erythromycin-induced long QT and torsade de pointes. j Am. Coll. Cardiol (1996) 28:1836–1848.
  • BRYANT SM, WAN X, SHIPSEY SJ et al: Regional differences in the delayed rectifier current (IKr and Ws) contribute to the differences in action potential duration in basal left ventricular myocytes in guinea-pig. Cardiovasc. Res. (1998) 40:322–331.
  • DROUIN E, CHARPENTIER F, GAUTHIER C et al.: Electrophysiological characteristics of cells spanning the left ventricular wall of human heart: evidence for the presence of M cells. I Am. Coll. Cardiol. (1995) 26:185–192.
  • LI GR, FENG J, YUE L etal.: Transmural heterogeneity of action potentials and 1„,„1 in myocytes isolated from the human right ventricle. Am. J. Physiol. (1998) 275:H369–H377.
  • VISWANATHAN PC, SHAW RIVI, RUDY Y: Effects of IKr and IKs heterogeneity on action potential duration and its rate dependence: a simulation study. Circulation (1999) 99:2466–2474.
  • •A computer model to simulate effects of the ratio of IKA on action potential duration and its rate dependence.
  • SHIMIZU W, ANTZELEVITCH C: Sodium channel block with mexiletine is effective in reducing dispersion of repolarization and preventing Torsade de Points in LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation (1997) 96:2038–2047.
  • SHIMIZU WAND ANTZELEVITCH C: Cellular basis for the electrocardiographic features of the LQT1 form of the long QT syndrome: effects of P-adrenergic agonists, antagonists and sodium channel blockers on transmural dispersion of repolarization and torsade de points. Circulation (1998) 98:2314–2322.
  • EMORI T, ANTZELEVITCH C: Cellular basis for complex T waves and arrhythmic activity following combined I(Kr) and I (Ks) block. I Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2001) 12:1369–1378.
  • VOLDERS E SIPIDO KR, VOS MA et al:Cellular basis of biventricular hypertrophy and arrhythmogenesis in dog with chronic complete atriventricular block and acquired torsade de pointes. Circulation (1998) 98:1136–1147.
  • ANTZELEVITCH C, YAN GX, SHIMIZU W et al: Electrical hetereogeneity, the ECG, and cardiac arrhythmias. In: Cardiac electrophysiology: from cell to bedside. Zipes DP, Jalife J (Eds.), WB Saunders Co., Philadelphia (1999):222–238.
  • YAN GX, WU Y, LIU T et al: Phase 2 early afterdepolarization as a trigger of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in acquired long-QT syndrome: direct evidence from intracellular recordings in the intact left ventricular wall. Circulation (2001) 103:2851–2856.
  • ••A score system to estimate the risk of acompound for the development of TIP
  • LUBINSKI A, LEWICKA-NOWAK E, KEMPA M et al.: New insight into repolarization abnormalities in patients with congenital long QT syndrome: the increased transmural dispersion of repolarization. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol (1998) 21:172–175.
  • LUBINSKI A, KORNACEWICZ-JACH Z, WNUK-WOJNAR AM etal.: The terminal portion of the T wave: a new electrocardiographic marker of risk of ventricular arrhythmias. Pacing CM]. Electrophysiol (2000) 23:1957–1959.
  • •Use of Tpe&-rrend as an index to detect the risk of ventricular arrhythmias in patients.
  • YAN GX, RIALS SJ, WU Y etal.: Ventricular hypertrophy amplifies transmural repolarization dispersion and induces early afterdepolarization. Am. Physiol (2001) 281:H1968–H1975.
  • SANGUINETTI MC, JURKIEWICZ NK: Two components of cardiac delayed rectifier KE current. Differential sensitivity to block by Class III antiarrhythmic agents. I Gen. Physiol (1990) 96:195–215.
  • •Discovery of I and I.
  • ZYGMUNT AC, EDDLESTONE GT, THOMAS GP et al.: Larger late sodium conductance in M cells contributes to electrical heterogeneity in canine ventricle. Am. I Physiol Heart Circ. Physiol (2001) 281:H689–H697.
  • RODEN DM, LAZZARA R, ROSEN MR etal.: Multiple mechanisms in the long-QT syndrome: current knowledge, gaps, and future directions. Circulation (1996) 94:1996–2012.
  • VISWANATHAN PC, RUDY Y: Cellular arrhythmogenic effects of congenital and acquired long-QT syndrome in the heterogeneous myocardium. Circulation (2000) 101:1192–1198.
  • TANABE Y, INAGAKI M, KURITA T etal.: Sympathetic stimulation produces a greater increase in both transmural and spatial dispersion of repolarization in LQT1 than LQT2 forms of congenital long QT syndromes. I Am. Coll. Cardiol (2001) 37:911–919.
  • WILDE AA, JONGBLOED RJ, DOEVENDANS PA et al: Auditory stimuli as a trigger for arrhythmic events differentiate HERG-related (LQTS2) patients from KVLQT1-related patients (LQTS1). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1999) 33:327–332.
  • •Auditory stimuli to trigger the onset of TdP in patients with LQTS.
  • SHIMIZU W, ANTZELEVITCH C: Differential effects of P-adrenergic agonists and antagonists in LQT1, LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long QT syndrome. I Am. Coll. Cardiol. (2000) 35:778–786.
  • YAN GX, ANTZELEVITCH C: Cellular basis for the electrocardiographic J wave. Circulation (1996) 93:372–379.
  • MOSS AJ, ZAREBA W, BENHORIN J et al.: ECG T-wave patterns in genetically distinct forms of the hereditary long QT syndrome. Circulation (1995) 92:2929–2934.
  • ZHANG L, TIMOTHY KW, VINCENT GM etal.: Spectrum of ST-T-wave patterns and repolarization parameters in congenital long-QT syndrome: ECG findings identify genotypes. Circulation (2000) 102:2849–2855.
  • ••ECG T wave patterns in patients withLQTS.
  • VISWANATHAN PC, RUDY Y: Pause induced early afterdepolarizations in the long QT syndrome: a simulation study. Cardiovasc. Res. (1999) 42:530–542.
  • AKAR FG, YAN GX, ANTZELEVITCH C et al.: Optical maps reveal re-entrant mechanism of Torsade de Pointes based on topography and electrophysiology of mid-myocardial cells. Circulation (2002) 105:1247–1253.
  • •TdP as an electrical circus movement within the ventricular wall.
  • BURASHNIKOV A, ANTZELEVITCH C: Block of I(Ks) does not induce early afterdepolarization activity but promotes beta-adrenergic agonist-induced delayed afterdepolarization activity. j Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2000) 11:458–465.
  • SCHWARTZ PJ: The idiopathic long QT syndrome: progress and questions. Am. Heart J. (1985) 109:399–411.
  • VINCENT GM, TIMOTHY KW, LEPPERT M et al: The spectrum of symptoms and QT intervals in carriers of the gene for the long-QT syndrome. N Engl. J. Med. (1992) 327:846–852.
  • GARSON A, DICK M, FOURNIER A et al: The long QT syndrome in children: an international study of 287 patients. Circulation (1993) 87: 1866-1872.
  • SCHWARTZ PJ: The long QT syndrome. Cun: Probl Cardiol (1997) 22:297–351.
  • SHIMIZU W, OHE T, KURITA T et al: Effects of verapamil and propranolol on early afterdepolarizations and ventricular arrhythmias induced by epinephrine in congenital long QT syndrome. j Am. Coll. Cardiol (1995) 26:1299–1309.
  • ELDAR M, GRIFFIN JC, VAN HARE GF et al: Combined use of P-adrenergic blocking agents and long-term cardiac pacing for patients with the long QT syndrome. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1992) 20:830–837.
  • MOSS AJ, ZAREBA W, HALL WJ et al: Effectiveness and limitations of P-blocker therapy in congenital long-QT syndrome. Circulation (2000) 101:616–623.
  • ••Clinical data for the effectiveness ofn-blocker in the treatment of LQTS.
  • RODEN DM: QT bumps: unraveling the mechanisms. j Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2001) 12:1379–1380.
  • PRIORI SG, NAPOLITANO C, PAGANINI V et al: Molecular biology of the long QT syndrome: impact on management. PACE (1997) 20:2052–2057.
  • WINDLE JR, GELETKA RC, MOSS AJ etal.: Normalization of ventricular repolarization with flecainide in long QT syndrome patients with SCN5A:SKPQ mutation. Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol (2001) 6:153–158.
  • LENGYEL C, IOST N, VIRAG L et al: Pharmacological block of the slow component of the outward delayed rectifier current (I(Ks)) fails to lengthen rabbit ventricular muscle QT(c) and action potential duration. Br j Pharmacol (2001) 132:101–110.
  • YANG T, RODEN DM: Extracellular potassium modulation of drug block of Implications for torsade de pointes and reverse use-dependence. Circulation (1996) 93:407–411.
  • COMPTON SJ, LUX RL, RAMSEY MR eta].: Genetically defined therapy of inherited long-QT syndrome. Correction of abnormal repolarization by potassium. Circulation (1996) 94:1018–1022.
  • SATO T, HATA Y, YAMAMOTO M et al.:Early afterdepolarization abolished by potassium channel opener in a patient with idiopathic long QT syndrome. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (1995) 6:279–282.
  • CAMPANELLI B, CHAUDRON JM: Long term follow up of long QT syndrome treated by overdrive pacing. Heart (2001) 86:E14.
  • VISKIN S: Cardiac pacing in the long QT syndrome: review of available data and practical recommendations. j Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol (2000) 11:593–600.
  • •Cardiac pacing is useful in patients with LQTS.
  • GINTANT GA, LIMBERIS JT, MCDERMOTT JS et al: The canine Purkinje fiber: an in vitro model system for acquired long QT syndrome and drug-induced arrhythmogenesis. j Cardiovasc. Pharmacol (2001) 37:607–618.
  • SUN W, SARNIA JS, SINGH BN: Electrophysiological effects of dronedarone (5R33589), a noniodinated benzofuran derivative, in the rabbit heart: comparison with amiodarone. Circulation (1999) 100:2276–2281.
  • MITCHESON JS, CHEN J, LIN M Et al.: A structural basis for drug-induced long QT syndrome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2000) 97:12329–12333.
  • MOHAMMAD S, ZHOU Z, GONG Q et al.: Blockage of the HERG human cardiac K+ channel by the gastrointestinal prokinetic agent cisapride. Am. j Physiol (1997) 273:H2534–H2538.
  • ROY ML, DUMAINE R, BROWN AM: HERG, a primary human ventricular target of the nonsedating antihistamine terfenadine. Circulation (1996) 94:817–823.
  • TIE H, WALKER BD, SINGLETON CB et al.: Inhibition of HERG potassium channels by the antimalarial agent halofantrine. Br j Pharmacol (2000) 130:1967–1975.
  • HUANG FD, CHEN J, LIN M et al.: Long-QT syndrome-associated mis-sense mutations in the pore helix of the HERG potassium channel. Circulation (2001) 104:1071–1075.
  • YANG T, SNYDERS D, AND RODEN DM: Drug block of I(Kr): model systems and relevance to human arrhythmias. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol (2001) 38:737–744.
  • •Imodel for the preclinical test of acompound.
  • SINGH SN, FLETCHER RD, FISHER SG et al: Amiodarone in patients with congestive heart failure and asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmia. Survival Trial of Anti-arrhythmic Therapy in Congestive Heart Failure. N Engl. I Med. (1995) 333:77–82.
  • JULIAN DG: The amiodarone trials. Eur. Heart J. (1997) 18:1361–1362.
  • BURASHNIKOV A, ANTZELEVITCH C: Differences in the electrophysiologic response of four canine ventricular cell types to a1-adrenergic agonists. Cardiovasc. Res. (1999) 43:901–908.
  • YAN GX, ANTZELEVITCH C: Cellular basis for the Brugada syndrome and other mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis associated with ST-segment elevation. Circulation (1999) 100:1660–1666.
  • SHIMIZU W, ANTZELEVITCH C: Cellular and ionic basis for T-wave alternans under long-QT conditions. Circulation (1999) 99:1499–1507.
  • SHIMIZU W, ANTZELEVITCH C: Effects of a KW channel opener to reduce transmural dispersion of repolarization and prevent torsade de pointes in LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3 models of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation (2000) 102:706–712.
  • SICOURI S, MORO S, LITOVSKY SH et al.: Chronic amiodarone reduces transmural dispersion of repolarization in the canine heart. j Cardiovasc. Dectrophysiol (1997) 8:1269–1279.
  • VAN OPSTAL JM, SCHOENMAKERS M, VERDUYN SC et al: Chronic amiodarone evokes no torsade de pointes arrhythmias despite QT lengthening in an animal model of acquired long-QT syndrome. Circulation (2001) 104:2722–2727.
  • •Possible mechanism for the low risk of TdP seen in amiodarone.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.