The use of cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis

Bibliography

• FOX CM, BENSA S, BRAY I, ZAJICEK JP: The epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Devon: a comparison of the new and old classification criteria. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (2004) 75(1):56–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COMPSTON A, COLES A: Multiple sclerosis. Lancet (2002) 359(9313):1221–1231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Review of the pathophysiology, naturalhistory and treatment of MS.
   Google Scholar
• WEINSHENKER BG, RICE GP, NOSEWORTHY JH et al.: The natural history of multiple sclerosis: a geographically based study. 3. Multivariate analysis of predictive factors and models of outcome. Brain (1991) 114\(Part 2):1045–1056.
   Google Scholar
• WEINSHENKER BG, BASS B, RICE GP et al.: The natural history of multiple sclerosis: a geographically based study. 2. Predictive value of the early clinical course. Brain (1989) 112\(Part 6):1419–1428.
   Google Scholar
• WEINSHENKER BG, BASS B, RICE GP et al.: The natural history of multiple sclerosis: a geographically based study. I. Clinical course and disability. Brain (1989) 112\(Part 1):133–146.
   Google Scholar
• MINAGAR A, TOLEDO EG, ALEXANDER JS, KELLEY RE: Pathogenesis of brain and spinal cord atrophy in multiple sclerosis. Neuroimaging (2004) 14\(Suppl. 3):55-10S.
   Google Scholar
• BARNETT MH, PRINEAS JW: Relapsing and remitting multiple sclerosis: pathology of the newly forming lesion. Ann. Neurol (2004) 55(4):458–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LUCCHINETTI CE BRUCK W, LASSMANN H: Evidence for pathogenic heterogeneity in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. (2004) 56(2):308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LUCCHINETTI C, BRUCK W, PARISI J et al.: Heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis lesions: implications for the pathogenesis of demyelination. Ann. Neurol (2000) 47(6):707–717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The medicianl uses of cannabis and cannabinoids: G Guy, B Whittle, P Robson (Eds) Pharmaceutical Press, UK (2004):1–488.
   Google Scholar
• MATSUDA LA, LOLAIT SJ, BROWNSTEIN MJ, YOUNG AC, BONNER TI: Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of the cloned cDNA. Nature (1990) 346(6284):561–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MUNRO S, THOMAS KL, ABU-SHAAR M: Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids. Nature (1993) 365(6441):61–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOWLETT AC, BARTH F, BONNER TI et al.: International Union of Pharmacology. XXVII. Classification of cannabinoid receptors. Pharmacol. Rev. (2002) 54(2):161–202.
   Google Scholar
• ••Extensive review of cannabinoid receptors.
   Google Scholar
• PERTWEE RG: Pharmacology of cannabinoid receptor ligands. Curr. Med. Chem. (1999) 6(8):635–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRIFFIN G, ATKINSON PJ, SHOWALTER VM, MARTIN BR, ABOOD ME: Evaluation of cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists using the guanosine-5'- 0- (3-135S1thio)-triphosphate binding assay in rat cerebellar membranes../. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1998) 285(2):553–560.
   Google Scholar
• PETITET F, JEANTAUD B, REIBAUD M, IMPERATO A, DUBROEUCQ MC: Complex pharmacology of natural cannabinoids: evidence for partial agonist activity of A9-tetrahydrocannabinol and antagonist activity of cannabidiol on rat brain cannabinoid receptors. Life Sci. (1998) 63(1):PL1–PL6.
   Google Scholar
• SHEN M, THAYER SA: A9-tetrahydrocannabinol acts as a partial agonist to modulate glutamatergic synaptic transmission between rat hippocampal neurons in culture. Mol. Pharmacol (1999) 55(1):8–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RHEE MH, BAYEWITCH M, AVID OR REISS T, LEVY R, VOGEL Z: Cannabinoid receptor activation differentially regulates the various adenylyl cyclase isozymes. Neurochem. (1998) 71(4):1525–1534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GLASS M, FAULL RLM, DRAGUNOW M: Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain: a detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study in the fetal, neonatal and adult human brain. Neuroscience (1997) 77(2):299–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HERKENHAM M, LYNN A, LITTLE M etCannabinoid receptor localization inbrain. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (1990) 87(5):1932–1936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAILLEUX P, PARMENTIER M, VANDERHAEGHEN JJ: Distribution of cannabinoid receptor messenger RNA in the human brain: an in situ hybridization histochemistry with oligonucleotides. Neurosci. Lett. (1992) 143(1-2):200–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HAJOS N, KATONA I, NAIEM SS et al: Cannabinoids inhibit hippocampal GABAergic transmission and network oscillations. Eur. .1. Neurosci. (2000) 12(9):3239–3249.
   Google Scholar
• KATONA I, SPERLAGH B, SIK A et al: Presynaptically located CBI cannabinoid receptors regulate GABA release from axon terminals of specific hippocampal interneurons. Neurosci (1999) 19(11):4544–4558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RODRIGUEZ JJ, MacKIE K, PICKEL VM: Ultrastructural localization of the CBI cannabinoid receptor in (micro)-opioid receptor patches of the rat caudate putamen nucleus. I Neurosci. (2001) 21(3):823–833.
   Google Scholar
• ISHAC E, JIANG L, LAKE K et al.: Inhibition of exocytotic noradrenaline release by presynaptic cannabinoid CBI receptors on peripheral sympathetic nerves. Br. J. Pharmacol. (1996) 118(8):2023–2028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GALIEGUE S, MARY S, MARCHAND J et al.: Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations. Eur. Biochem. (1995) 232(1):54–61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CATERINA MJ, SCHUMACHER MA, TOMINAGA M et al.: The capsaicin receptor: a heat-activated ion channel in the pain pathway. Nature (1997) 389(6653):816–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HAJOS N, FREUND TF: Pharmacological separation of cannabinoid sensitive receptors on hippocampal excitatory and inhibitory fibers. Neuropharmacology (2002) 43(4):503–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROSS RA, GIBSON TM, BROCKIE HC et al: Structure-activity relationship for the endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, and certain of its analogues at vanilloid receptors in transfected cells and vas deferens. Br. J. Pharmacol. (2001) 132(3):631–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILEY JL, MARTIN BR: Cannabinoid pharmacology: implications for additional cannabinoid receptor subtypes. Chem. Phys. Lipids (2002) 121(1-2):57–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MEZEY E, TOTH ZE, CORTRIGHT DN et al.: Distribution of mRNA for vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (VR1), and VR1-like immunoreactivity, in the central nervous system of the rat and human. Proc. Nati Acad. Li. USA (2000) 97(7):3655–3660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CATERINA MJ: Vanilloid receptors take a TRP beyond the sensory afferent-1. Pain (2003) 105(1-2):5–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AMAYA F, OH-HASHI K, NARUSE Y et al.: Local inflammation increases vanilloid receptor 1 expression within distinct subgroups of DRG neurons. Brain Res. (2003) 963(1-2):190–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CARLTON SM, COGGESHALL RE: Peripheral capsaicin receptors increase in the inflamed rat hindpaw: a possible mechanism for peripheral sensitization. Neurosci. Lett. (2001) 310(1):53–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JARAI Z, WAGNER JA, VARGA K et al.: Cannabinoid-induced mesenteric vasodilation through an endothelial site distinct from CBI or CB2 receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96(24):14136–14141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BISOGNO T, HANUS L, DE PETROCELLIS L et al.: Molecular targets for cannabidiol and its synthetic analogues: effect on vanilloid VR1 receptors and on the cellular uptake and enzymatic hydrolysis of anandamide. Br. J. Pharmacol. (2001) 134(4):845–852.
   Google Scholar
• ROMERO J, GARCIA-PALOMERO E, CASTRO JG et al.: Effects of chronic exposure to A9-tetrahydrocannabinol on cannabinoid receptor binding and mRNA levels in several rat brain regions. Molec. Brain Res. (1997) 46(1-2):100–108.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• OVIEDO A, GLOWA J, HERKENHAM M: Chronic cannabinoid administration alters cannabinoid receptor binding in rat brain: a quantitative autoradiographic study. Brain Res. (1993) 616(1-2):293–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAN F, TAO Q, ABOOD M, MARTIN BR: Cannabinoid receptor down-regulation without alteration of the inhibitory effect of CP-55940 on adenylyl cyclase in the cerebellum of CP-55940-tolerant mice. Brain Res. (1996) 706(1):13–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOWLETT AC, BREIVOGEL CS, CHILDERS SR et al.: Cannabinoid physiology and pharmacology: 30 years of progress. Neuropharmacology (2004) 47\(Suppl. 1):345–358.
   Google Scholar
• TZAVARA ET, VALJENT E, FIRMO C et al.: Cannabinoid withdrawal is dependent upon PKA activation in the cerebellum. Eur. Neurosci (2000) 12(3):1038–1046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEVANE WA, HANUS L, BREUER A et al: Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science (1992) 258(5090):1946–1949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MECHOULAM R, BEN-SHABAT S, HANUS L et al.: Identification of an endogenous 2-monoglyceride, present in canine gut, that binds to cannabinoid receptors. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1995) 50(1):83–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HANUS L, ABU-LAFI S, FRIDE E et al: 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether, an endogenous agonist of the cannabinoid CBI receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Li. USA (2001) 98(7):3662–3665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PORTER AC, SAUER J-M, KNIERMAN MD et al.: Characterization of a novel endocannabinoid, virodhamine, with antagonist activity at the CBI receptor. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (2002)301(3):1020–1024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HUANG SM, BISOGNO T, TREVISANI M et al.: An endogenous capsaicin-like substance with high potency at recombinant and native vanilloid VR1 receptors. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. (2002) 99(12)8400–8405.
   Google Scholar
• McPARTLAND JM: Cannabis and eicosanoids: a review of molecular pharmacology. J. Cannabis Ther. (2001) 1(1):71–83.
   Google Scholar
• PETROCELLIS LD, CASCIO MG, MARZO VD: The endocannabinoid system: a general view and latest additions. Br. J. Pharmacol. (2004) 141(5):765–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SUGIURA T, WAKU K: 2-Arachidonoylglycerol and the cannabinoid receptors. Chem. Phys. Lipids (2000) 108(1-2):89–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GONSIOREK W, LUNN C, FAN X et al: Endocannabinoid 2-arachidonyl glycerol is a full agonist through human type 2 cannabinoid receptor: antagonism by anandamide. Mol. Pharmacol. (2000) 57(5):1045–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIUFFRIDA A, RODRIGUEZ DE FONSECA F, NAVA F, LOUBET-LESCOULIE P, PIOMELLI D: Elevated circulating levels of anandamide after administration of the transport inhibitor, AM404. Eur. Pharmacol. (2000) 408(2):161–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIUFFRIDA A, BELTRAMO M, PIOMELLI D: Mechanisms of endocannabinoid inactivation: biochemistry and pharmacology. Pharmacol. Exp. They. (2001) 298(1):7–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPARTLAND JM: Phylogenomic and chemotaxonomic analysis of the endocannabinoid system. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev (2004) 45(1):18–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WATANABE K, KAYANO Y, MATSUNAGA T, YAMAMOTO I, YOSHIMURA H: Inhibition of anandamide amidase activity in mouse brain microsomes by cannabinoids. Biol. Pharm. Bull. (1996) 19(8):1109–1111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRUSAFERRI F, CANDELISE L: Steroids for multiple sclerosis and optic neuritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. J. Neurol. (2000) 247(6):435–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILES CM, NEWCOMBE RG, FULLER KJ et al: Controlled randomised crossover trial of the effects of physiotherapy on mobility in chronic multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (2001) 70(2):174–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CONSROE P, MUSTY R, REIN J, TILLERY W, PERT WEE R: The perceived effects of smoked cannabis on patients with multiple sclerosis. Eur. Neurol (1997) 38(1):44–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BAKER D, PRYCE G, CROXFORD JL et al.: Cannabinoids control spasticity and tremor in a multiple sclerosis model. Nature (2000) 404(6773):84–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PETRO DJ, ELLENBERGER C Jr: Treatment of human spasticity with A9-tetrahydrocannabinol. j Clin. Pharmacol. (1981) 21\(Suppl. 8–9):4135–4165.
   Google Scholar
• UNGERLEIDER JT, ANDYRSIAK T, FAIRBANKS L, ELLISON GW, MYERS LW: 49-THC in the treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis. Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abuse (1987) 7(1):39–50.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GREENBERG HS, WERNESS SA, PUGH JE et al.: Short-term effects of smoking marijuana on balance in patients with multiple sclerosis and normal volunteers. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1994) 55(3):324–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KILLESTEIN J, HOOGERVORST EL, REIF M et al.: Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of orally administered cannabinoids in MS. Neurology (2002) 58(9):1404–1407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ASHWORTH B: Preliminary trial of carisprodol in Multiple Sclerosis. Practitioner (1964) 192:540–542.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WADE DT, ROBS ON P, HOUSE H, MAKELA P, ARAM J: A preliminary controlled study to determine whether whole-plant cannabis extracts can improve intractable neurogenic symptoms. Clin. Rehabil (2003) 17(1):21–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZAJICEK J, FOX P, SANDERS H et al: Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet (2003) 362(9395):1517–1526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Largest trial of cannabinoids for thetreatment of MS.
   Google Scholar
• ZAJICEK JP, SANDERS HP, WRIGHT DE et al.: Cannabinoids in Multiple Schlerosis (CAMS) study, safety and efficacy data for up to 12 months follow-up. (2005) (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• VANEY C, HEINZEL-GUTENBRUNNER M, JOBIN P et al.: Efficacy, safety and tolerability of an orally administered cannabis extract in the treatment of spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Mull Scler. (2004) 10(4):417–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WADE DT, MAKELA P, ROBSON P, HOUSE H, BATEMAN C: Do cannabis-based medicinal extracts have general or specific effects on symptoms in multiple sclerosis? A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study on 160 patients. Mull Scler. (2004) 10(4):434–441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRADY CM, DASGUPTA R, DALTON C et al.: An open-label pilot study of cannabis-based extracts for bladder dysfunction in advanced multiple sclerosis. Mull Scler. (2004) 10(4):425–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MEINCK HM, SCHONLE PW, CONRAD B: Effect of cannabinoids on spasticity and ataxia in multiple sclerosis. Neurol (1989) 236(2):120–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLIFFORD DB: Tetrahydrocannabinol for tremor in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol (1983) 13(6):669–671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FOX P, BAIN PG, GLICKMAN S, CARROLL C, ZAJICEK J: The effect of cannabis on tremor in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2004) 62(7):1105–1109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHON F, HART PE, HODGSON TL et al.: Suppression of pendular nystagmus by smoking cannabis in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Neurology (1999) 53(9):2209a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DELL'OSSO LF, SCHON F, HART P et al.: Suppression of pendular nystagmus by smoking cannabis in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2000) 54(11):2190–b-2191.
   Google Scholar
• SVENDSEN KB, JENSEN TS, BACH FW: Does the cannabinoid dronabinol reduce central pain in multiple sclerosis? Randomised double blind placebo controlled crossover trial. Br. Med. J. (2004) 329(7460):253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NOTCUTT W, PRICE M, MILLER R et al.: Initial experiences with medicinal extracts of cannabis for chronic pain: results from 34 N of 1' studies. Anaesthesia (2004) 59(5):440–452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KARST M, SALIM K, BURSTEIN S et al: Analgesic effect of the dynthetic cannabinoid CT-3 on chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trial. JA MA (2003) 290(13):1757–1762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOBART J, AL E: Getting the measure of spasticity in MS: the MS Spasticity scale (MSSS-85) (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• ROTH MD, BALDWIN GC, TASHKIN DP: Effects of A9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human immune function and host defense. Chem. Phys. Lipids (2002) 121(1-2):229–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YUAN M, KIERTSCHER SM, CHENG Q et al: A9-Tetrahydrocannabinol regulates TH1/ TH2 cytokine balance in activated human T cells. .1 Neuroimmunol (2002) 133(1–2):124–131.
   Google Scholar
• DE VOS AF, VAN MEURS M, BROK HP et al.: Transfer of central nervous system autoantigens and presentation in secondary lymphoid organs. J. Immunology (2002) 169(10):5415–5423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ALOISI F, RIA F, ADORINI L: Regulation of T-cell responses by CNS antigen-presenting cells: different roles for microglia and astrocytes. Immunol Today (2000) 21(3):141–147.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PUFFENBARGER RA, BOOTHE AC, CABRAL GA: Cannabinoids inhibit LPS-inducible cytokine mRNA expression in rat microglial cells. Gila (2000) 29(1):58–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WALTER L, STELLA N: Cannabinoids and neuroinflammation. Br. Pharmacol (2004) 141(5):775–785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WALTER L, FRANKLIN A, WITTING A et al: Nonpsychotropic cannabinoid receptors regulate microglial cell migration. .1 Neurosci (2003) 23(4):1398–1405.
   Google Scholar
• TNF NEUTRALIZATION IN MS: Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled multicenter study. Neurology (1999) 53(3):457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HUANG Y-M, XIAO B-G, OZENCI V et al: Multiple sclerosis is associated with high levels of circulating dendritic cells secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines. Neuroimmunol (1999) 99(1):82–90.
   Google Scholar
• DO Y, McKALLIP RJ, NAGARKATTI M, NAGARKATTI PS: Activation through cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 on dendritic cells triggers NF-KB-dependent apoptosis: novel role for endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids in immunoregulation. Immunol (2004) 173(4):2373–2382.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MATSUMOTO Y, KOHYAMA K, AIKAWA Y et al.: Role of natural killer cells and TCR gamma delta T cells in acute autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Eur. Immunol (1998) 28(5):1681–1688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KARUSSIS DM, LEHMANN D, SLAVIN S et al: Inhibition of acute, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by the synthetic immunomodulator linomide. Ann. Neurology (1993) 34(5):654–660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DIAB A, MICHAEL L, WAHREN B et al: Linomide suppresses acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats by counter-acting the imbalance of pro-inflammatory versus anti-inflammatory cytokines. Neuroimmunol (1998) 85(2):146–154.
   Google Scholar
• MUNSCHAUER FE, HARTRICH LA, STEWART CC, JACOBS L: Circulating natural killer cells but not cytotoxic T lymphocytes are reduced in patients with active relapsing multiple sclerosis and little clinical disability as compared to controls. Neuroimmunol (1995) 62(2):177–181.
   Google Scholar
• MASSI P, FUZIO D, VIGANO D, SACERDOTE P, PAROLARO D: Relative involvement of cannabinoid CBI and CB2 receptors in the A9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced inhibition of natural killer activity. Eur. Pharmacol (2000) 387(3):343–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WATZL B, SCUDERI P, WATSON RR: Marijuana components stimulate human peripheral blood mononuclear cell secretion of interferon-gamma and suppress interleukin-1a in vitro. Int. Immunopharmacol. (1991) 13(8):1091–1097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KATONA S, KAMINSKI E, SANDERS H, ZAJICEK J: Cannabinoid influence on cytokine profile in multiple sclerosis. Clin. Exp. Imm. (2005) (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• BREDT BM, HIGUERA-ALHINO D, SHADE SB et al.: Short-term effects of cannabinoids on immune phenotype and function in HIV-1-infected patients. Pharmacol. (2002)42\(Suppl. 11):825–895.
   Google Scholar
• KILLESTEIN J, HOOGERVORST EL, REIF M et al.: Immunomodulatory effects of orally administered cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis. J. Neuroimmunol. (2003) 137(1-2):140–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FASSBENDER K, RAGOSCHKE A, ROSSOL S et al.: Increased release of interleukin-12p40 in MS: association with intracerebral inflammation. Neurology (1998) 51(3):753–758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EL-GOHARY M, EID MA: Effect of cannabinoid ingestion (in the form of bhang on the immune system of high school and university students. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. (2004) 23(3):149–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VAN OOSTEN BW, KILLESTEIN J, MATHUS-VLIEGEN EM, POLMAN CH: Multiple sclerosis following treatment with a cannabinoid receptor-1 antagonist. Mak. Scler. (2004) 10(3):330–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STOVER JF, LOWITZSCH K, KEMPSKI OS: Cerebrospinal fluid hypoxanthine, xanthine and uric acid levels may reflect glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in different neurological diseases. Neurosci. Lett. (1997) 238(1-2):25–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PITT D, WERNER P, RAINE CS: Glutamate excitotoxicity in a model of multiple sclerosis. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(1):67–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WERNER P, PITT D, RAINE CS: Multiple sclerosis: altered glutamate homeostasis in lesions correlates with oligodendrocyte and axonal damage. Ann. Neurol. (2001) 50(2):169–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRYCE G, AHMED Z, HANKEY DJ et al.: Cannabinoids inhibit neurodegeneration in models of multiple sclerosis. Bran] (2003) 126\(Part 10):2191–2202.
   Google Scholar
• HAMPSON AJ, GRIMALDI M, AXELROD J, WINK D: Cannabidiol and (-)A9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95(14):8268–8273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••In vitro study of the antioxidant effects ofcannabinoids.
   Google Scholar
• HANSEN HS, MOESGAARD B, HANSEN HH, SCHOUSBOE A, PETERSEN G: Formation of Nacyl-phosphatidylethanolamine and N-acylethanolamine (including anandamide) during glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Lipids (1999) 34(Suppl.):5327–s330.
   Google Scholar
• HAMPSON AJ, BORNHEIM LM, SCANZIANI M et al: Dual effects of anandamide on NMDA receptor-mediated responses and neurotransmission. Neurochemistry (1998) 70(2):671–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BO L, DAWSON TM, WESSELINGH S et al.: Induction of nitric oxide synthase in demyelinating regions of multiple sclerosis brains. Ann. Neurol. (1994) 36(5):778–786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BAGASRA 0, MICHAELS F, ZHENG Y et al.: Activation of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase in the brains of patients with mulitple sclerosis. Proc. Nati Acad. Sri. USA (1995) 92(26):12041–12045.
   Google Scholar
• BROSNAN CF, BATTISTINI L, RAINE CS et al.: Reactive nitrogen intermediates in human neuropathology: an overview. Dev. Neurosci (1994) 16(3-4):152–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• REDFORD E, KAPOOR R, SMITH K: Nitric oxide donors reversibly block axonal conduction: demyelinated axons are especially susceptible. Bluth (1997) 120(12):2149–2157.
   Google Scholar
• SMITH KJ, KAPOOR R, HALL SM, DAVIES M: Electrically active axons degenerate when exposed to nitric oxide. Ann. Neurol. (2001) 49(4):470–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEFANO GB, ESCH T, CADET P et al.: Endocannabinoids as autoregulatory signaling molecules: coupling to nitric oxide and a possible association with the relaxation response. Med. Sci. Monit. (2003) 9(4):RA63-RA75.
   Google Scholar
• CHEN Y, BUCK J: Cannabinoids protect cells from oxidative cell death: a receptor-independent mechanism. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (2000) 293(3):807–812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HAMPSON AJ, GRIMALDI M, LOLIC M et al.: Neuroprotective Antioxidants from Marijuana. Ann. NY Acad. Sri. (2000) 899(1):274–282.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MARSICANO G, MOOSMANN B, HERMANN H, LUTZ B, BEHL C: Neuroprotective properties of cannabinoids against oxidative stress: role of the cannabinoid receptor CBI. Neurochem. (2002) 80(3):448–456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GALLILY R, BREUER A, MECHOULAM R:2-Arachidonylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid, inhibits tumor necrosis factor- [a] production in murine macrophages, and in mice. Eur. Pharmacol. (2000) 406(1):R5–R7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DOWNER EJ, FOGARTY MP, CAMPBELL VA: Tetrahydrocannabinol-induced neurotoxicity depends on CBI receptor-mediated c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation in cultured cortical neurons. Br. J. Pharmacol. (2003) 140(3)547–557.
   Google Scholar
• GALVE-ROPERH I, SANCHEZ C, CORTES ML et al.: Anti-tumoral action of cannabinoids: involvement of sustained ceramide accumulation and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(3):313–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SANCHEZ C, GALVE-ROPERH I, CANOVA C, BRACHET P, GUZMAN M: A9-tetrahydrocannabinol induces apoptosis in C6 glioma cells. FEBS Lett. (1998) 436(1):6–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NAGAYAMA T, SINOR AD, SIMON RP et al.: Cannabinoids and neuroprotection in global and focal cerebral ischemia and in neuronal cultures. J. Neurosci. (1999) 19(8):2987–2995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEKER RR, GAI N, MECHOULAM R, OVADIA H: Drug-induced hypothermia reduces ischemic damage: effects of the cannabinoid HU-210. Stroke (2003) 34(8):2000–2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KNOLLER N, LEVI L, SHOSHAN I et al.: Dexanabinol (HU-211) in the treatment of severe closed head injury: a randomized, placebo-controlled, Phase II clinical trial. Grit. Care Med. (2002) 30(3):548–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PHARMOS CORPORATION: Press release: Pharmos announces results from its pivotal Phase III trial of dexanabinol for severe traumatic brain injury (2004).
   Google Scholar
• JUTTLER E, POTRO VITA I, TARABIN V et al.: The cannabinoid dexanabinol is an inhibitor of the nuclear factor-KB (NF-HB). Neuropharmacology (2004) 47(4):580–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MOLINA-HOLGADO E, VELA JM, AREVALO-MARTIN A et al.: Cannabinoids promote oligodendrocyte progenitor survival: involvement of cannabinoid receptors and phosphatidylinosito1-3 kinase/Akt signaling. Neurosci. (2002) 22(22):9742–9753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GUZMAN M: Cannabinoids: potential anticancer agents. Nat. Rev Cancer (2003) 3(10):745–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AREVALO-MARTIN A, VELA JM, MOLINA-HOLGADO E, BORRELL J, GUAZA C: Therapeutic action of cannabinoids in a murine model of multiple sclerosis. J. Neurosci. (2003) 23(7):2511–2516.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEWITT PA: Deprenyl's effect at slowing progression of parkinsonian disability: the DATATOP study. The Parkinson Study Group. Acta Neurol Scand. Suppl (1991) 136:79–86.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WARD CD: Does selegiline delay progression of Parkinson's disease? A critical re-evaluation of the DATATOPstudy. I Neural. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1994) 57(2):217–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar