Which antihypertensive drugs are the most nephroprotective and why?

Bibliography

• United States Renal Data System (USRDS), Annual report 2009. Available from: http://www.usrds.org/ [Last accessed 5 August 2010.]
   Google Scholar
• Sethi A, Arora R. Ambulatory blood pressure as a predictor of cardiovascular risk. Arch Med Sci 2009;5:3-9
   Google Scholar
• Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N Engl J Med 1996;334:13-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shulman NB, Ford CE, Hall WD, Prognostic value of serum creatinine and effect of treatment of hypertension on renal function. Results from the hypertension detection and follow-up program. The Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program Cooperative Group. Hypertension 1989;13:180-93
   Google Scholar
• Kao WH, Klag MJ, Meoni LA, MYH9 is associated with nondiabetic end-stage renal disease in African Americans. Nat Genet 2008;40:1185-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopp JB, Smith MW, Nelson GW, MYH9 is a major-effect risk gene for focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Nat Genet 2008;40:1175-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norrelund H, Christensen KL, Samani NJ, Early narrowed afferent arteriole is a contributor to the development of hypertension. Hypertension 1994;24:301-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kestenbaum B, Rudser KD, de Boer IH, Differences in kidney function and incident hypertension: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med 2008;148:501-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman BI, Sedor JR. Hypertension-associated kidney disease: perhaps no more. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:2047-51
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ravera M, Re M, Deferrari L, Importance of blood pressure control in chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:S98-103
   Google Scholar
• Casas JP, Chua W, Loukogeorgakis S, Effect of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system and other antihypertensive drugs on renal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2005;366:2026-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remuzzi G, Ruggenenti P. Overview of randomised trials of ACE inhibitors. Lancet 2006;368:555-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Fassi A, Ilieva AP, Preventing microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1941-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 2000;355:253-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibsen H, Olsen MH, Wachtell K, Does albuminuria predict cardiovascular outcomes on treatment with losartan versus atenolol in patients with diabetes, hypertension, and left ventricular hypertrophy? The LIFE study. Diabetes Care 2006;29:595-600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luft FC. Hypertensive nephrosclerosis-a cause of end-stage renal disease? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000;15:1515-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fatica RA, Port FK, Young EW. Incidence trends and mortality in end-stage renal disease attributed to renovascular disease in the United States. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;37:1184-90
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chapman A. Polycystic kidney disease: the cadence of kidney growth in ADPKD. Nat Rev Nephrol 2009;5:311-12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stengel B, Billon S, Van Dijk PC, Trends in the incidence of renal replacement therapy for end-stage renal disease in Europe, 1990 – 1999. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:1824-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jafar TH, Stark PC, Schmid CH, The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors on progression of advanced polycystic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2005;67:265-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman AB, Torres VE, Perrone RD, The HALT polycystic kidney disease trials: design and implementation. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;5:102-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radin MJ, Wilke WL, Fettman MJ. Dose effect of captopril on renal hemodynamics and proteinuria in conscious, partially nephrectomized rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1989;190:294-300
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langham RG, Kelly DJ, Cox AJ, Proteinuria and the expression of the podocyte slit diaphragm protein, nephrin, in diabetic nephropathy: effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition. Diabetologia 2002;45:1572-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deyneli O, Yavuz D, Velioglu A, Effects of ACE inhibition and angiotensin II receptor blockade on glomerular basement membrane protein excretion and charge selectivity in type 2 diabetic patients. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2006;7:98-103
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. The Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1456-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maschio G, Alberti D, Janin G, Effect of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor benazepril on the progression of chronic renal insufficiency. The Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibition in Progressive Renal Insufficiency Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334:939-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The GISEN group. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of effect of ramipril on decline in glomerular filtration rate and risk of terminal renal failure in proteinuric, non-diabetic nephropathy. Lancet 1997;349:1857-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Perna A, Mosconi L, ; Gruppo Italiano di Studi Epidemiologici in Nefrologia (GISEN). Urinary protein excretion rate is the best independent predictor of ESRF in non-diabetic proteinuric chronic nephropathies. Kidney Int 1998;53:1209-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright JT Jr, Bakris G, Greene T, Effect of blood pressure lowering and antihypertensive drug class on progression of hypertensive kidney disease: results from the AASK trial. JAMA 2002;288:2421-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parving HH, Lehnert H, Brochner-Mortensen J, The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:870-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001;345:861-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Zeeuw D, Remuzzi G, Parving HH, Albuminuria, a therapeutic target for cardiovascular protection in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Circulation 2004;110:921-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weir MR. Effects of renin-angiotensin system inhibition on end-organ protection: can we do better? Clin Ther 2007;29:1803-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett AH, Bain SC, Bouter P, Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1952-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hou FF, Xie D, Zhang X, Renoprotection of Optimal Antiproteinuric Doses (ROAD) Study: a randomized controlled study of benazepril and losartan in chronic renal insufficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;18:1889-98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strippoli GF, Craig M, Deeks JJ, Effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists on mortality and renal outcomes in diabetic nephropathy: systematic review. BMJ 2004;329:828-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Cravedi P, Remuzzi G. Proteinuria: increased angiotensin-receptor blocking is not the first option. Nat Rev Nephrol 2009;5:367-68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoja C, Corna D, Camozzi D, How to fully protect the kidney in a severe model of progressive nephropathy: a multidrug approach. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:2898-908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HJ, Ryu JH, Han SW, Combined therapy of cilazapril and losartan has no additive effects in ameliorating adriamycin-induced glomerulopathy. Nephron Physiol 2004;97:p58-65
   Google Scholar
• Campbell R, Sangalli F, Perticucci E, Effects of combined ACE inhibitor and angiotensin II antagonist treatment in human chronic nephropathies. Kidney Int 2003;63:1094-103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann JF, Schmieder RE, McQueen M, Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:547-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindeman RD, Tobin J, Shock NW. Longitudinal studies on the rate of decline in renal function with age. J Am Geriatr Soc 1985;33:278-85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Remuzzi G. Proteinuria: is the ONTARGET renal substudy actually off target? Nat Rev Nephrol 2009;5:436-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen TJ, Waldron MJ, Casley D, Salt restriction reduces hyperfiltration, renal enlargement, and albuminuria in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 1997;46:19-24
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fabris B, Jackson B, Johnston CI. Salt blocks the renal benefits of ramipril in diabetic hypertensive rats. Hypertension 1991;17:497-503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogt L, Waanders F, Boomsma F, Effects of dietary sodium and hydrochlorothiazide on the antiproteinuric efficacy of losartan. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:999-1007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bomback AS, Klemmer PJ. The incidence and implications of aldosterone breakthrough. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2007;3:486-92
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rossi GP. Aldosterone breakthrough during RAS blockade: a role for endothelins and their antagonists? Curr Hypertens Rep 2006;8:262-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Struthers A, Krum H, Williams GH. A comparison of the aldosterone-blocking agents eplerenone and spironolactone. Clin Cardiol 2008;31:153-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwazu Y, Muto S, Fujisawa G, Spironolactone suppresses peritubular capillary loss and prevents deoxycorticosterone acetate/salt-induced tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Hypertension 2008;51:749-54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lin S, Li D, Jia J, Spironolactone ameliorates podocytic adhesive capacity via restoring integrin {alpha}3 expression in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2010;11:149-57
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aldigier JC, Kanjanbuch T, Ma LJ, Regression of existing glomerulosclerosis by inhibition of aldosterone. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:3306-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furumatsu Y, Nagasawa Y, Tomida K, Effect of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system triple blockade on non-diabetic renal disease: addition of an aldosterone blocker, spironolactone, to combination treatment with an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor and angiotensin II receptor blocker. Hypertens Res 2008;31:59-67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehdi UF, Adams-Huet B, Raskin P, Addition of angiotensin receptor blockade or mineralocorticoid antagonism to maximal angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2641-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cravedi P, Brusegan V, Ruggenenti P, Spironolactone plus full-dose ACE inhibition in patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy and nephrotic syndrome: does it really work? Pharmaceuticals 2010;3:1-9
   Google Scholar
• Estacio RO. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade in diabetes: role of direct renin inhibitors. Postgrad Med 2009;121:33-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen G, Delarue F, Burckle C, Pivotal role of the renin/prorenin receptor in angiotensin II production and cellular responses to renin. J Clin Invest 2002;109:1417-27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen G, Danser AH. Prorenin and (pro)renin receptor: a review of available data from in vitro studies and experimental models in rodents. Exp Physiol 2008;93:557-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whaley-Connell A, Nistala R, Habibi J, Comparative effect of direct renin inhibition and AT1R blockade on glomerular filtration barrier injury in the transgenic Ren2 rat. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2010;298:F655-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parving HH, Persson F, Lewis JB, Aliskiren combined with losartan in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2433-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luno J, Garcia de Vinuesa S, Gomez-Campdera F, Effects of antihypertensive therapy on progression of diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int Suppl 1998;68:S112-19
   Google Scholar
• Bakris GL, Copley JB, Vicknair N, Calcium channel blockers versus other antihypertensive therapies on progression of NIDDM associated nephropathy. Kidney Int 1996;50:1641-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakris GL, Mangrum A, Copley JB, Effect of calcium channel or beta-blockade on the progression of diabetic nephropathy in African Americans. Hypertension 1997;29:744-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakris GL, Weir MR, Secic M, Differential effects of calcium antagonist subclasses on markers of nephropathy progression. Kidney Int 2004;65:1991-2002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herlitz H, Harris K, Risler T, The effects of an ACE inhibitor and a calcium antagonist on the progression of renal disease: the Nephros Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16:2158-65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Perna A, Loriga G, Blood-pressure control for renoprotection in patients with non-diabetic chronic renal disease (REIN-2): multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365:939-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viberti G, Wheeldon NM. Microalbuminuria reduction with valsartan in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a blood pressure-independent effect. Circulation 2002;106:672-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamerson K, Weber MA, Bakris GL, Benazepril plus amlodipine or hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2008;359:2417-28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakris GL, Sarafidis PA, Weir MR, Renal outcomes with different fixed-dose combination therapies in patients with hypertension at high risk for cardiovascular events (ACCOMPLISH): a prespecified secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010;375:1173-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, Blood pressure control, proteinuria, and the progression of renal disease. The modification of diet in renal disease study Ann Intern Med 1995;123:754-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Hiatt WR, The effect of nisoldipine as compared with enalapril on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and hypertension. N Engl J Med 1998;338:645-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Husten L. Calcium antagonist stopped in ABCD study. Appropriate blood pressure control in diabetes. Lancet 1998;351:P731
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Appel L, Wright J, Greene T, Intensive blood-pressure control in hypertensive chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2010;363:918-29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banach M, Mikhailidis DP, Kjeldsen SE, Time for new indications for statins? Med Sci Monit 2009;15:MS1-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Perna A, Tonelli M, Effects of add-on fluvastatin therapy in patients with chronic proteinuric nephropathy on dual renin-angiotensin system blockade: the ESPLANADE trial. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010 Jul 29 [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Perticucci E, Cravedi P, Role of remission clinics in the longitudinal treatment of CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:1213-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess E, Muirhead N, Rene de Cotret P, Supramaximal dose of candesartan in proteinuric renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:893-900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollenberg NK, Parving HH, Viberty G, Albuminuria response to very high dose valsartan in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Hypertens 2007;25:1921-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggenenti P, Mise N, Pisoni R, Diverse effects of increasing lisinopril doses on lipid abnormalities in chronic nephropathies. Circulation 2003;107:586-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schjoedt KJ, Astrup AS, Persson F, Optimal dose of lisinopril for renoprotection in type 1 diabetic patients with diabetic nephropathy: a randomised crossover trial. Diabetologia 2009;52:46-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossing K, Christensen PK, Hansen BV, Optimal dose of canderstartan for renoprotection in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy: a double-blind randomised cross-over study. Diabetes Care 2003;26:150-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houlihan CA, Allen TJ, Baxter AL, A low-sodium diet potentiates the effects of losartan in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2002;25:663-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buter H, Hemmelder MH, Navis G, The blunting of the antiproteinuric efficacy of ACE inhibition by high sodium intake can be restored by hydrochlorothiazide. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998;13:1682-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navis G, de Jong PE, Donker AJ Moderate sodium restriction in hypertensive subjects: renal effects of ACE-inhibition. Kidney Int 1987;31:815-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar