586
Views
22
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Advances in the treatment of invasive neonatal candidiasis

, MD, , MD PhD (Kiser-Arena Professor of Pediatrics) & , MD PhD (Associate Professor of Pediatrics)

Bibliography

  • Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, et al. Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: the experience of the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 2002;110(2 Pt 1):285-91
  • Benjamin DKJr, Stoll BJ, Fanaroff AA, et al. Neonatal candidiasis among extremely low birth weight infants: risk factors, mortality rates, and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 to 22 months. Pediatrics 2006;117:84-92
  • Friedman S, Richardson SE, Jacobs SE, O’Brien K. Systemic Candida infection in extremely low birth weight infants: short-term morbidity and long term neurodevelopmental outcome. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000;19:499-504
  • Lee BE, Cheung PY, Robinson JL, et al. Comparative study of mortality and morbidity in premature infants (birth weight < 1250 g) with candidemia or candidal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27:559-65
  • Clerihew L, Lamagni TL, Brocklehurst P, McGuire W. Candida parapsilosis infection in very low birthweight infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2007;92:F127-9
  • Fridkin SK, Kaufman D, Edwards JR, et al. Changing incidence of Candida bloodstream infections among NICU patients in the United States: 1995–2004. Pediatrics 2006;117:1680-7
  • Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:503-35
  • Manzoni P, Benjamin DK, Hope W, et al. The management of Candida infections in preterm neonates and the role of micafungin. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2011;24(Suppl 2):24-7
  • Cotten CM, McDonald S, Stoll B, et al. The association of third-generation cephalosporin use and invasive candidiasis in extremely low birth-weight infants. Pediatrics 2006;118:717-22
  • Benjamin DKJr, DeLong ER, Steinbach WJ, et al. Empirical therapy for neonatal candidemia in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2003;112:543-7
  • Aliaga S, Clark RH, Laughon M, et al. Changes in the incidence of candidiasis in neonatal intensive care units. Pediatrics 2014;133:236-42
  • Kelly MS, Benjamin DKJr, Smith PB. The epidemiology and diagnosis of invasive candidiasis among premature infants. Clin Perinatol 2015;42:105-17
  • Benjamin DKJr, Garges H, Steinbach WJ. Candida bloodstream infection in neonates. Semin Perinatol 2003;27:375-83
  • Benjamin DKJr, Stoll BJ, Gantz MG, et al. Neonatal candidiasis: epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical judgment. Pediatrics 2010;126:e865-73
  • Saiman L, Ludington E, Pfaller M, et al. Risk factors for candidemia in neonatal intensive care unit patients. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey study group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000;19:319-24
  • Bendel CM. Nosocomial neonatal candidiasis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005;24:831-2
  • Benjamin DKJr, Poole C, Steinbach WJ, et al. Neonatal candidemia and end-organ damage: a critical appraisal of the literature using meta-analytic techniques. Pediatrics 2003;112(3 Pt 1):634-40
  • Greenberg RG, Benjamin DKJr. Neonatal candidiasis: diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. J Infect 2014;69(Suppl 1):S19-22
  • Hsieh E, Smith PB, Jacqz-Aigrain E, et al. Neonatal fungal infections: when to treat? Early Hum Dev 2012;88(Suppl 2):S6-10
  • Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Moran C, Benjamin DKJr, Smith PB. Pediatric antifungal agents. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009;22:553-8
  • Linder N, Klinger G, Shalit I, et al. Treatment of candidemia in premature infants: comparison of three amphotericin B preparations. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;52:663-7
  • Jeon GW, Koo SH, Lee JH, et al. A comparison of AmBisome to amphotericin B for treatment of systemic candidiasis in very low birth weight infants. Yonsei Med J 2007;48:619-26
  • Scarcella A, Pasquariello MB, Giugliano B, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B treatment for neonatal fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:146-8
  • Princeton NJ. Bristol-Meyers Squibb. Fungizone (amphotericin B deoxycholate) [package insert]. 2009
  • Astellas Pharmaceuticals. AmBisome (liposomal amphotericin B) [package insert]. Available from: http://www.astellas.us/docs/ambisome.pdf [Last accessed 15 December 2014]
  • Sigma-Tau Pharmaceuticals. Abelcet (amphotericin B Lipid Complex) [package insert]. Available from: http://www.sigmatau.com/products/abelcet_rx.asp [Last accessed 21 December 2014]
  • Lestner J, Smith PB, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, et al. Antifungal agents and therapy for infants and children with invasive fungal infections: a pharmacological perspective. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012;75:1381-95
  • Groll AH, Tragiannidis A. Update on antifungal agents for paediatric patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010;16:1343-53
  • ABCD. Johns Hopkins Antibiotic (ABX) Guide. Available from: http://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_ABX_Guide/540020/all/Amphotericin_B_cholesteryl_sulfate_complex__ABCD [Last accessed 20 February 2015]
  • Baley JE, Meyers C, Kliegman RM, et al. Pharmacokinetics, outcome of treatment, and toxic effects of amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine in neonates. J Pediatr 1990;116:791-7
  • Koren G, Lau A, Klein J, et al. Pharmacokinetics and adverse effects of amphotericin B in infants and children. J Pediatr 1988;113:559-63
  • Nath CE, McLachlan AJ, Shaw PJ, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B in children with malignant diseases. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2001;52:671-80
  • Luna B, Drew RH, Perfect JR. Agents for treatment of invasive fungal infections. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2000;33:277-99
  • Almirante B, Rodriguez D. Antifungal agents in neonates. Paediatr Drugs 2007;9:311-21
  • Fernandez M, Moylett EH, Noyola DE, Baker CJ. Candidal meningitis in neonates: a 10-year review. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:458-63
  • Driessen M, Ellis JB, Cooper PA, et al. Fluconazole vs. amphotericin B for the treatment of neonatal fungal septicemia: a prospective randomized trial. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996;15:1107-12
  • Glick C, Graves GR, Feldman S. Neonatal fungemia and amphotericin B. South Med J 1993;86:1368-71
  • Benson JM, Nahata MC. Pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B in children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989;33:1989-93
  • Le J, Adler-Shohet FC, Nguyen C, Lieberman JM. Nephrotoxicity associated with amphotericin B deoxycholate in neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:1061-3
  • Gallis HA, Drew RH, Pickard WW. Amphotericin B: 30 years of clinical experience. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:308-29
  • Holler B, Omar SA, Farid MD, Patterson MJ. Effects of fluid and electrolyte management on amphotericin B-induced nephrotoxicity among extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2004;113:e608-16
  • Dismukes WE. Introduction to antifungal drugs. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:653-7
  • Andes D, Safdar N, Marchillo K, Conklin R. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic comparison of amphotericin B (AMB) and two lipid-associated AMB preparations, liposomal AMB and AMB lipid complex, in murine candidiasis models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:674-84
  • Groll AH, Giri N, Petraitis V, et al. Comparative efficacy and distribution of lipid formulations of amphotericin B in experimental Candida albicans infection of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis 2000;182:274-82
  • Groll AH, Lyman CA, Petraitis V, et al. Compartmentalized intrapulmonary pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B and its lipid formulations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:3418-23
  • Wurthwein G, Groll AH, Hempel G, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B lipid complex in neonates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49:5092-8
  • Lopez Sastre JB, Coto Cotallo GD, Fernandez Colomer B, Grupo de Hospitales C. Neonatal invasive candidiasis: a prospective multicenter study of 118 cases. Am J Perinatol 2003;20:153-63
  • Cetin H, Yalaz M, Akisu M, et al. The efficacy of two different lipid-based amphotericin B in neonatal Candida septicemia. Pediatr Int 2005;47:676-80
  • Walsh TJ, Seibel NL, Arndt C, et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex in pediatric patients with invasive fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:702-8
  • Wiley JM, Seibel NL, Walsh TJ. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B lipid complex in 548 children and adolescents with invasive fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005;24:167-74
  • Ascher SB, Smith PB, Watt K, et al. Antifungal therapy and outcomes in infants with invasive Candida infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31:439-43
  • Frattarelli DA, Reed MD, Giacoia GP, Aranda JV. Antifungals in systemic neonatal candidiasis. Drugs 2004;64:949-68
  • Watt K, Manzoni P, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, et al. Triazole use in the nursery: fluconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and ravuconazole. Curr Drug Metab 2013;14:193-202
  • Autmizguine J, Guptill JT, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antifungals in children: clinical implications. Drugs 2014;74:891-909
  • Saxen H, Virtanen M, Carlson P, et al. Neonatal Candida parapsilosis outbreak with a high case fatality rate. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995;14:776-81
  • Cleveland AA, Farley MM, Harrison LH, et al. Changes in incidence and antifungal drug resistance in candidemia: results from population-based laboratory surveillance in Atlanta and Baltimore, 2008-2011. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:1352-61
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L, et al. Variation in susceptibility of bloodstream isolates of Candida glabrata to fluconazole according to patient age and geographic location. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:2176-9
  • Roerig. Diflucan (fluconazole) [package insert]. Available from: http://labeling.pfizer.com/ShowLabeling.aspx?id=575 [Last accessed 15 December 2014]
  • Turner K, Manzoni P, Benjamin DK, et al. Fluconazole pharmacokinetics and safety in premature infants. Curr Med Chem 2012;19:4617-20
  • Wade KC, Wu D, Kaufman DA, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in young infants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:4043-9
  • Wade KC, Benjamin DKJr, Kaufman DA, et al. Fluconazole dosing for the prevention or treatment of invasive candidiasis in young infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:717-23
  • Fasano C, O’Keeffe J, Gibbs D. Fluconazole treatment of neonates and infants with severe fungal infections not treatable with conventional agents. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994;13:351-4
  • Healy CM, Baker CJ, Zaccaria E, Campbell JR. Impact of fluconazole prophylaxis on incidence and outcome of invasive candidiasis in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Pediatr 2005;147:166-71
  • Healy CM, Campbell JR, Zaccaria E, Baker CJ. Fluconazole prophylaxis in extremely low birth weight neonates reduces invasive candidiasis mortality rates without emergence of fluconazole-resistant Candida species. Pediatrics 2008;121:703-10
  • Aghai ZH, Mudduluru M, Nakhla TA, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis in extremely low birth weight infants: association with cholestasis. J Perinatol 2006;26:550-5
  • Bertini G, Perugi S, Dani C, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis prevents invasive fungal infection in high-risk, very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2005;147:162-5
  • Manzoni P, Arisio R, Mostert M, et al. Prophylactic fluconazole is effective in preventing fungal colonization and fungal systemic infections in preterm neonates: a single-center, 6-year, retrospective cohort study. Pediatrics 2006;117:e22-32
  • McCrossan BA, McHenry E, O’Neill F, et al. Selective fluconazole prophylaxis in high-risk babies to reduce invasive fungal infection. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2007;92:F454-8
  • Uko S, Soghier LM, Vega M, et al. Targeted short-term fluconazole prophylaxis among very low birth weight and extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2006;117:1243-52
  • Weitkamp JH, Ozdas A, LaFleur B, Potts AL. Fluconazole prophylaxis for prevention of invasive fungal infections in targeted highest risk preterm infants limits drug exposure. J Perinatol 2008;28:405-11
  • Kaufman D, Boyle R, Hazen KC, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis against fungal colonization and infection in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1660-6
  • Kaufman D, Boyle R, Hazen KC, et al. Twice weekly fluconazole prophylaxis for prevention of invasive Candida infection in high-risk infants of <1000 grams birth weight. J Pediatr 2005;147:172-9
  • Kicklighter SD, Springer SC, Cox T, et al. Fluconazole for prophylaxis against candidal rectal colonization in the very low birth weight infant. Pediatrics 2001;107:293-8
  • Manzoni P, Stolfi I, Pugni L, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of prophylactic fluconazole in preterm neonates. N Engl J Med 2007;356:2483-95
  • Parikh TB, Nanavati RN, Patankar CV, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis against fungal colonization and invasive fungal infection in very low birth weight infants. Indian Pediatr 2007;44:830-7
  • Benjamin DKJr, Hudak ML, Duara S, et al. Effect of fluconazole prophylaxis on candidiasis and mortality in premature infants: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014;311:1742-9
  • Clerihew L, Austin N, McGuire W. Prophylactic systemic antifungal agents to prevent mortality and morbidity in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007(4):CD003850
  • Manavathu EK, Cutright JL, Chandrasekar PH. Organism-dependent fungicidal activities of azoles. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:3018-21
  • Fung-Tomc JC, White TC, Minassian B, et al. In vitro antifungal activity of BMS-207147 and itraconazole against yeast strains that are non-susceptible to fluconazole. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999;35:163-7
  • Janssen Pharmaceuticals. SPORANOX - itraconazole solution [package insert]. Available from: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=ae50721d-ee15-4ee7-9fe7-afd98c56461b [Last accessed 30 October 2013]
  • Groll AH, Wood L, Roden M, et al. Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of cyclodextrin itraconazole in pediatric patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:2554-63
  • Schmitt C, Perel Y, Harousseau JL, et al. Pharmacokinetics of itraconazole oral solution in neutropenic children during long-term prophylaxis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:1561-4
  • Bhandari V, Narang A, Kumar B, et al. Itraconazole therapy for disseminated candidiasis in a very low birthweight neonate. J Paediatr Child Health 1992;28:323-4
  • Sciacca A, Betta P, Cilauro S, et al. [Oral administration of itraconazole in a case of neonatal hepatic candidiasis]. Pediatr Med Chir 1995;17:173-5
  • Bermudez M, Fuster JL, Llinares E, et al. Itraconazole-related increased vincristine neurotoxicity: case report and review of literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2005;27:389-92
  • Moriyama B, Henning SA, Leung J, et al. Adverse interactions between antifungal azoles and vincristine: review and analysis of cases. Mycoses 2012;55:290-7
  • Pasquale T, Tomada JR, Ghannoun M, et al. Emergence of Candida tropicalis resistant to caspofungin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008;61:219
  • Hawkins JL, Baddour LM. Candida lusitaniae infections in the era of fluconazole availability. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:e14-18
  • Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Gibbs DL, et al. Geographic and temporal trends in isolation and antifungal susceptibility of Candida parapsilosis: a global assessment from the ARTEMIS DISK Antifungal Surveillance Program, 2001 to 2005. J Clin Microbiol 2008;46:842-9
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L, et al. Selection of a surrogate agent (fluconazole or voriconazole) for initial susceptibility testing of posaconazole against Candida spp.: results from a global antifungal surveillance program. J Clin Microbiol 2008;46:551-9
  • European Medicines Agency. Vfend: EPAR, product information. Available from: http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=/pages/medicines/human/medicines/002669/human_med_001651.jsp. 2013. [Last accessed 26 March 2015]
  • Roerig. Vfend (voriconazole) [package insert], New York, NY. 2013
  • Kohli V, Taneja V, Sachdev P, Joshi R. Voriconazole in newborns. Indian Pediatr 2008;45:236-8
  • Frankenbusch K, Eifinger F, Kribs A, et al. Severe primary cutaneous aspergillosis refractory to amphotericin B and the successful treatment with systemic voriconazole in two premature infants with extremely low birth weight. J Perinatol 2006;26:511-14
  • Muldrew KM, Maples HD, Stowe CD, Jacobs RF. Intravenous voriconazole therapy in a preterm infant. Pharmacotherapy 2005;25:893-8
  • Tan K, Brayshaw N, Tomaszewski K, et al. Investigation of the potential relationships between plasma voriconazole concentrations and visual adverse events or liver function test abnormalities. J Clin Pharmacol 2006;46:235-43
  • Denning DW, Griffiths CE. Muco-cutaneous retinoid-effects and facial erythema related to the novel triazole antifungal agent voriconazole. Clin Exp Dermatol 2001;26:648-53
  • Merck. Noxafil (posaconazole) [package insert], Whitehouse Station, NJ. 2012
  • McKeage K. Posaconazole: a review of the gastro-resistant tablet and intravenous solution in invasive fungal infections. Drugs 2015. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Courtney R, Sansone A, Smith W, et al. Posaconazole pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability in subjects with varying degrees of chronic renal disease. J Clin Pharmacol 2005;45:185-92
  • Welzen ME, Bruggemann RJ, Van Den Berg JM, et al. A twice daily posaconazole dosing algorithm for children with chronic granulomatous disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:794-7
  • Segal BH, Barnhart LA, Anderson VL, et al. Posaconazole as salvage therapy in patients with chronic granulomatous disease and invasive filamentous fungal infection. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:1684-8
  • Krishna G, Sansone-Parsons A, Martinho M, et al. Posaconazole plasma concentrations in juvenile patients with invasive fungal infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:812-18
  • Seifert H, Aurbach U, Stefanik D, Cornely O. In vitro activities of isavuconazole and other antifungal agents against Candida bloodstream isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:1818-21
  • Guinea J, Pelaez T, Recio S, et al. In vitro antifungal activities of isavuconazole (BAL4815), voriconazole, and fluconazole against 1,007 isolates of zygomycete, Candida, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Scedosporium species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:1396-400
  • Pharmaceutica Basilea. Basilea reports U.S. FDA approval of isavuconazole for the treatment of invasive aspergillosis and invasive mucormycoses. Available from: http://www.basilea.com/Investor-Relations/News-and-Media/Basilea-reports-U-S-FDA-approval-of-isavuconazole-for-the-treatment-of-invasive-aspergillosis-and-invasive-mucormycosis/b5a4bddf-f2f4-0e01-34d0-94ae3bef0367 [Last accessed 25 March 2015]
  • Falci DR, Pasqualotto AC. Profile of isavuconazole and its potential in the treatment of severe invasive fungal infections. Infect Drug Resist 2013;6:163-74
  • Majithiya J, Sharp A, Parmar A, et al. Efficacy of isavuconazole, voriconazole and fluconazole in temporarily neutropenic murine models of disseminated Candida tropicalis and Candida krusei. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009;63:161-6
  • Hatano K, Morishita Y, Nakai T, Ikeda F. Antifungal mechanism of FK463 against Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2002;55:219-22
  • Ikeda F, Wakai Y, Matsumoto S, et al. Efficacy of FK463, a new lipopeptide antifungal agent, in mouse models of disseminated candidiasis and aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44:614-18
  • Groll AH, Mickiene D, Petraitiene R, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modeling of anidulafungin (LY303366): reappraisal of its efficacy in neutropenic animal models of opportunistic mycoses using optimal plasma sampling. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:2845-55
  • Wynn JL, Tan S, Gantz MG, et al. Outcomes following candiduria in extremely low birth weight infants. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54:331-9
  • Ernst EJ, Klepser ME, Pfaller MA. Postantifungal effects of echinocandin, azole, and polyene antifungal agents against Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44:1108-11
  • Merck. Cancidas (caspofungin) [package insert], Whitehouse Station, NJ. 2013
  • European Medicines Agency. Cancidas: EPAR - product information. Available from: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Product_Information/human/000379/WC500021033.pdf [Last accessed 25 March 2015]
  • Stone JA, Holland SD, Wickersham PJ, et al. Single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of caspofungin in healthy men. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:739-45
  • Saez-Llorens X, Macias M, Maiya P, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of caspofungin in neonates and infants less than 3 months of age. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009;53:869-75
  • Natarajan G, Lulic-Botica M, Rongkavilit C, et al. Experience with caspofungin in the treatment of persistent fungemia in neonates. J Perinatol 2005;25:770-7
  • Odio CM, Araya R, Pinto LE, et al. Caspofungin therapy of neonates with invasive candidiasis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004;23:1093-7
  • Li CC, Sun P, Dong Y, et al. Population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of caspofungin in pediatric patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011;55:2098-105
  • Walsh TJ, Adamson PC, Seibel NL, et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability of caspofungin in children and adolescents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49:4536-45
  • Zaoutis TE, Jafri HS, Huang LM, et al. A prospective, multicenter study of caspofungin for the treatment of documented Candida or Aspergillus infections in pediatric patients. Pediatrics 2009;123:877-84
  • Franklin JA, McCormick J, Flynn PM. Retrospective study of the safety of caspofungin in immunocompromised pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22:747-9
  • Astellas Pharmaceuticals. Mycamine [package insert], Northbrook, IL. 2013
  • European Medicines Agency. Mycamine: EPAR, product information. 2013. Available from: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Product_Information/human/000734/WC500031075.pdf [Last accessed 26 March 2015]
  • Hope WW, Mickiene D, Petraitis V, et al. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of micafungin in experimental hematogenous Candida meningoencephalitis: implications for echinocandin therapy in neonates. J Infect Dis 2008;197:163-71
  • Petraitis V, Petraitiene R, Groll AH, et al. Comparative antifungal activities and plasma pharmacokinetics of micafungin (FK463) against disseminated candidiasis and invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in persistently neutropenic rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:1857-69
  • Hope WW, Seibel NL, Schwartz CL, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of micafungin in pediatric patients and implications for antifungal dosing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:3714-19
  • Lepak AJ, Marchillo K, VanHecker J, et al. Isavuconazole pharmacodynamic target determination for Candida species in an in vivo murine disseminated candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013;57:5642-8
  • Queiroz-Telles F, Berezin E, Leverger G, et al. Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for pediatric patients with invasive candidiasis: substudy of a randomized double-blind trial. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008;27:820-6
  • Kuse ER, Chetchotisakd P, da Cunha CA, et al. Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for candidaemia and invasive candidiasis: a phase III randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2007;369:1519-27
  • Arrieta AC, Maddison P, Groll AH. Safety of micafungin in pediatric clinical trials. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:e97-102
  • Smith PB, Walsh TJ, Hope W, et al. Pharmacokinetics of an elevated dosage of micafungin in premature neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:412-15
  • Pfaller MA, Boyken L, Hollis RJ, et al. In vitro activities of anidulafungin against more than 2,500 clinical isolates of Candida spp., including 315 isolates resistant to fluconazole. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:5425-7
  • Roerig. Eraxis (anidulafungin) [package insert]. Available from: http://medlibrary.org/lib/rx/meds/eraxis/ [Last accessed 15 December 2014]
  • Damle B, Stogniew M, Dowell J. Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of anidulafungin in rats. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:2673-6
  • Benjamin DKJr, Driscoll T, Seibel NL, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of intravenous anidulafungin in children with neutropenia at high risk for invasive fungal infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:632-8
  • Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Benjamin DKJr, Piper L, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of multiple-dose anidulafungin in infants and neonates. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011;89:702-7
  • Denning DW, Hope WW. Therapy for fungal diseases: opportunities and priorities. Trends Microbiol 2010;18:195-204
  • Johnson E, Espinel-Ingroff A, Szekely A, et al. Activity of voriconazole, itraconazole, fluconazole and amphotericin B in vitro against 1763 yeasts from 472 patients in the voriconazole phase III clinical studies. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008;32:511-14
  • Valeant. Ancobon (flucytosine) [package insert]. Available from: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=2352 [Last accessed 21 December 2014]
  • Lewis RE, Klepser ME, Pfaller MA. In vitro pharmacodynamic characteristics of flucytosine determined by time-kill methods. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;36:101-5
  • Schonebeck J, Polak A, Fernex M, Scholer HJ. Pharmacokinetic studies on the oral antimycotic agent 5-fluorocytosine in individuals with normal and impaired kidney function. Chemotherapy 1973;18:321-36
  • Soltani M, Tobin CM, Bowker KE, et al. Evidence of excessive concentrations of 5-flucytosine in children aged below 12 years: a 12-year review of serum concentrations from a UK clinical assay reference laboratory. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006;28:574-7
  • Johnson KC, Barone JG. Management of obstructing fungal pyelonephritis in infants. Urology 2006;67:424.e7-9
  • Wald M, Lawrenz K, Kretzer V, et al. A very low birth weight infant with Candida nephritis with fungus balls. Full recovery after pyelotomy and antifungal combination therapy. Eur J Pediatr 2003;162:642-3
  • Bryant K, Maxfield C, Rabalais G. Renal candidiasis in neonates with candiduria. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:959-63
  • Utz JP, Garriques IL, Sande MA, et al. Therapy of cryptococcosis with a combination of flucytosine and amphotericin B. J Infect Dis 1975;132:368-73
  • Francis P, Walsh TJ. Evolving role of flucytosine in immunocompromised patients: new insights into safety, pharmacokinetics, and antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 1992;15:1003-18

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.