Management of growth retardation in the young patient with Crohn’s disease

REFERENCES

• SAWCZENKO A, SANDHU BK, LOGAN RFA et al: Prospective survey of childhood inflammatory bowel disease in the British Isles. Lancet (2001) 357:1093-1094. •Prospective study suggesting that the incidence of IBD in the UK has increased in the last two decades. The authors plan to repeat their study in 3 years time todocument changes in the epidemiology.
   Google Scholar
• GRYBOSKI JD: Crohn's disease in children 10 years old and younger: comparison with ulcerative colitis. j Paediati: Castro. Nutr. (1995) 18:174–182.
   Google Scholar
• KANOF ME, LAKE AM, BAYLESS TM: Decreased height velocity in children and adolescents before the diagnosis of Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology (1988) 95:1523–1527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAVAGE MO, BEATTIE RM, CAMACHO-HUBNER C etal.: Growth in Crohn's disease. Acta. Paediatr. (1999) 88(428)89–92.
   Google Scholar
• KIRSCHNER BS: Growth and development in chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Acta. Paediatr. Scam/. (1990) 366:98–104.
   Google Scholar
• KIRSCHNER BS, KLICH J, KALMAN Set al.: Reversal of growth retardation in Crohn's disease with therapy emphasizing oral nutritional restitution. Gastroenterology (1981) 80:10-15. •• •• •• •• ••Young patients with Crohn's disease complicated by growth failure behave as chronically undernourished individuals who resumed growth in response to adequate calorie repletion.
   Google Scholar
• BALLINGER AB, AZOOZ 0, EL-HAJ T, POOLE S, FARTHING MJG: Linear growth retardation in experimental colitis is induced through a decrease in insulin-like growth factor-I which is independent of malnutrition. Gut (2000) 46:695-700. •Linear growth retardation and suppression of IGF-I in a model of colitis is mediated by both undernuffition and inflammation.
   Google Scholar
• BALLINGER AB, CAMACHO-HOBNER C, CROFT NM: Growth failure and intestinal inflammation. QJM(2001) 94:121-125. •Review article focusing on the effect of undernuffition and pro-inflammatory cytokines on linear growth and the endocrine mediators of growth failure in IBD.
   Google Scholar
• AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR PARENTERAL AND ENTERAL NUTRITION (ASPEN): Board of Directors (1987) Guidelines for the use of enteral nutrition in the adult patient. Parente/al Enteral. Nun: (1997) 11:435–439.
   Google Scholar
• O'MORAIN C, SEGAL AW, LEVI AJ: Elemental diet as primary treatment of acute Crohn's disease: a controlled trial. Br. Med. J. (1984) 288:1859-1862. ••The first randomised trial to show thatelemental diet was as effective as prednisolone 0.75 mg/kg/day in the induction of remission in active Crohn's disease.
   Google Scholar
• SANDERSON IR, UDEEN S, DAVIES PSW et al.: Remission induced by an elemental diet in small bowel Crohn's disease. Arch. Dis. Child (1987) 61:123-127. ••Growth velocity at 6 months was higher inchildren whose Crohn's disease was brought into remission with elemental formula administration when compared with steroid therapy.
   Google Scholar
• RAOUF AH, HILDREY V, DANIEL J et al.: Enteral feeding as sole treatment for Crohn's disease: controlled trial of whole protein versus amino acid based feed and a case study of dietary challenge Gut (1991) 32:702–707.
   Google Scholar
• PARK RHR, GALLOWAY A, DANESH BJZ, RUSSELL RI: Double-blind controlled trial of elemental and polymeric diets as primary therapy in active Crohn's disease. Eur. j Gastroenterol Hepatol (1991) 3:483–490.
   Google Scholar
• RIGAUD D, COSNES J, LE QUINTREC Y, RENÉ E, GENDRE JP, MIGNON M: Controlled trial comparing two types of enteral nutrition in treatment of active Crohn's disease: elemental and polymeric diet. Gut (1991) 32:1492-1497. •Thirty patients with active Crohn's disease unresponsive to steroids and/or complicated by malnutrition received a 4–6 week course of elemental or polymeric diet. Clinical remission occurred in 10 of 15 patients on elemental diet compared with 11 of 15 patients on polymeric diet.
   Google Scholar
• BEATTIE RIVI, SCHIFFRIN EJS, DONNET-HUGHES A et al: Polymeric nutrition as the primary therapy in children with small bowel Crohn's disease. Aliment. Pharmacol Ther. (1994) 8:609–615.
   Google Scholar
• HEUSCHKEL RB, MENACHE CC, MEGERIAN JT, BAIRD AE: Enteral nutrition and corticosteroids in the treatment of acute Crohn's disease in children. j Paed. Gastroenterol Nutr. (2000) 31:8-15. ••In five randomised trials comprising 147children, enteral nutrition was as effective as corticosteroids at inducing remission. Two further non-randomised trials did not significantly alter the result.
   Google Scholar
• SEIDMAN E, LOHOUES MJ, TURGEON L, BOUTHILLIER L, MORIN CL: Elemental diet versus prednisolone as initial therapy in Crohn's disease: Early and long-term results. Gastroenterology (1991) 100:250. Abstract.
   Google Scholar
• SEIDMAN E, GRIFFITHS A, JONES A, ISSENMAN R: Semi-elemental diet vs. prednisolone in paediatric Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology (1993) 104:778. Abstract.
   Google Scholar
• THOMAS AG, TAYLOR F, MILLER V: Dietary intake and nutritional treatment in childhood Crohn's disease. j Paediatr. Gastroenterol Nun: (1993) 17:75–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RUUSKA T, SAVILAHTI E, MAKI M, ORMALA T, VISAKORPI JK: Exclusive whole protein enteral diet versus prednisolone in the treatment of acute Crohn's disease in children. j Paediatr. Gastroenterol Nun: (1994) 19:175–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRIFFITHS AM, OHLSSON A, SHERMAN PM, SUTHERLAND LR: Meta-analysis of enteral nutrition as a primary treatment of active Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology (1995) 108:1056-1067. •In eight trials comprising 413 patients, the likelihood of clinical remission with enteral nutrition (elemental, semi-elemental or polymeric) versus corticosteroids was 0.35 (95% CI 0.23–0.53).
   Google Scholar
• FERNANDEZ-BANARES F, CABRE E, ESTEVE-COMAS M, GASSULL MA: How effective is enteral nutrition in inducing clinical remission in active Crohn's disease? A meta-analysis of the randomised clinical trials. j Parenteral Enteral Nun: (1995) 19:356-364. •In a total of 419 adult patients the overall remission rate was 57.7% for enteral nutrition and 79.4% for steroids.
   Google Scholar
• MESSORI A, TRALLORI G, D'ALBASIO G, MILLA M, VANNOZZI G, PACINI F. Defined formula diets versus steroids in the treatment of active Crohn's disease. A meta-analysis. Scand. I Gastroenterol. (1996) 31:267–272.
   Google Scholar
• BEATTIE RIVI: Therapy of Crohn's disease in childhood. Paediatr Drugs (2001) 2:193-203. •Review article summarising the treatment of Crohn's disease in paediatric practice.
   Google Scholar
• BREESE EJ, MICHIE CA, NICHOLLS SW et al.: The effect of treatment on lymphokine-secreting cells in the intestinal mucosa of children with Crohn's disease. Aliment. Pharmacol Ther. (1995) 9:547–553.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• FELL JME, PAINTIN M, ARNAUD- BATTANDIER F etal.: Mucosal healing and a fall in mucosal pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA induced by specific oral polymeric diet in paediatric Crohn's disease. Aliment. Ther. Pharmacol (2000) 14:281-289. •After 8 weeks of oral polymeric diet as the sole source of nutrition, 79% of children were in complete clinical remission. Healing in the terminal ileum and colon was associated with a 16-and 125-fold fall in ileal and colonic IL-1B mRNA respectively. In the ileum there was also a fall in IFNI/ and a rise in TGF-B-1 mRNA.
   Google Scholar
• ALLEN DB: Growth suppression by corticosteroid therapy. Endocnnol Metab. Clin North Am. (1996) 25:699–717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MODIGLIANI R, MARY JY, SIMON JF et al.: Clinical, biological and endoscopic picture of attacks of Crohn's disease; evolution on prednisolone. Groupe d'Etude Therapeutique des Affections Inflammatoires Digestives. Gastroenterology (1990) 98:811–818.
   Google Scholar
• RUTGEERTS P, LOFBERG R, MALCHOW H et al.: A comparison of •• budesonide with prednisolone for active Crohn's disease. N Engl. I Med. (1994) 331:842-845. •176 patients with active Heal or ileocaecal Crohn's disease were randomised to budesonide (9 mg/day for 8 weeks and then 6 mg/day for 2 weeks) or predrtisolone (40 mg/day tapering by 5 mg/week after 2 weeks) After 10 weeks remission was similar in the budesonide (53%) and predrtisolone (66%) treated patients.
   Google Scholar
• KUNDHAL P, ZACHOS M, HOLMES JL, GRIFFTIHS AM: Controlled ileal release budesonide in paediatric Crohn's disease: efficacy and effect on growth. Paed. Gastroenterol Nutr. (2001) 33:75-80. •In this retrospective study, linear growth of young patients with Crohn's disease was not facilitated by the administration of CIR budesonide to maintain clinical remission.
   Google Scholar
• WILSCHANSKI M, SHERMAN P, PENCHARZ P et al.: Supplementary enteral nutrition maintains remission in paediatric Crohn's disease. Gut (1996) 38:543-548. ••Relapse rates at 6 and 12 months werelower in patients who continued nasogastric supplemental feeding after resumption of an otherwise normal diet (19% and 43%) compared with the cohort who discontinued nocturnal supplements completely (79% and 79%).
   Google Scholar
• KIRSCHNER BS: Safety of azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine in pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology (1998) 115:813-821. •Of 95 patients, azathioprine or 6-MP was tolerated in 54% of patients without adverse reaction; 28% experienced side effects that responded to dose reduction or spontaneously. Cessation of therapy was needed in 18%. Mean predrtisone dose decreased from 24.3 to 8.6 mg/day.
   Google Scholar
• MARKOWITZ J, GRANCHER K, KOHN N, LESSER M, DAUM F: A multicenter trial of 6-mercaptopurine and prednisone in children with newly diagnosed Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology (2000) 119:895–902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KAM LY AND TARGAN SR: TNF-a antagonists for the treatment of Crohn's disease. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2000) 1:615-622. •New medical therapies that inhibit the bioactivity of TNF-a represent a major breakthrough in the treatment of Crohn's disease. This review summarises the clinical data and economic impact for each of these categories of TNF-a inhibition.
   Google Scholar
• TARGAN SR, HANAUER SB, VAN DEVENTER SJ et al: A short-term study of chimeric monoclonal antibody, cA2, to tumour necrosis factor alpha for Crohn's disease. N Engl. J. Med. (1997) 337:1029–1035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RUTGEERTS P, D'HAENS G, TARGAN et al.: Retreatment with anti-TNF-a chimeric antibody (cA2) effectively maintains cA2-induced remission in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology (1999) 117:761–769.
   Google Scholar
• SERRANO MS, SCHMIDT- SOMMERFELD E etal.: Use of infliximab in pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Ann. Pharmacother (2001) 35:823-828. •Patients (n = 18) with active Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis poorly controlled with conventional therapy were treated with 1–6 iv. infusions of infliximab 5 mg/kg. All experienced clinical improvement.
   Google Scholar
• HYAMS JS, MARKOWITZ J, WYLLIE R: Use of infliximab in the treatment of Crohn's disease in children and adolescents. J.Pediatr (2000) 137:192-196. •In 19 patients with corticosteroid-resistant or corticosteroid-dependent disease, inflximab produced clinical improvement at 4 weeks with a significant decrease in the Pediatric Crohn's Disease Activity Index (from mean 42.1 to mean 10.0).
   Google Scholar
• SIEGAL SA, SHEALY DJ, NAKAMADA MT et al.: The mouse/human chimeric monoclonal antibody cA2 neutralises TNF in vitro and protects transgenic mice from cachexia and TNF lethality in vivo. Cytokine (1995) 7:15–25.
   Google Scholar