Current concepts in the management of gonorrhoea

REFERENCES

• GERBASE AC, ROWLEY JT, HEYMANNDHL, BERKLEY SFB, PIOT P: Global prevalence and incidence estimates of selected curable STDs. Sex. Transm. (1998) 74\(Suppl. 1):S12-S16. •A recent and comprehensive analysis of the worldwide distribution of gonococcal disease and the limitations of data gathering and analysis.
   Google Scholar
• LACEY CJN, MERRICK DW, BENSLEY DC, FAIRLEY I: Analysis of the sociodemography of gonorrhoea in Leeds, 1989-1993. Br Med. J. (1997) 314:1715–1718.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LOW N, DAKER-WHITE G, BARLOW D, POZNIAK Al: Gonorrhoea in inner London: results of a cross-sectional study. BE Med. J. (1997):1719–1723.
   Google Scholar
• ROCHE E SPENCER J, UN M et al.: Australia's notifiable disease status (1999). Annual report of the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System. Commun. Dis. Limn. (2001) 25:199–245.
   Google Scholar
• PAGE-SHAFER KA, MCFARLAND W, KOHN R et al.: Increases in unsafe sex and rectal gonorrhea among men who have sex with men - San Francisco, California. 1994–1997. MMWR Morb. Mort. Wkly Rep. (1999) 48:45–48.
   Google Scholar
• MARTIN ICM, ISON CA: Rise in gonorrhoea in London, UK. Lancet (2000) 355:623.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DONOVAN B, BODSWORTH NJ, ROHRSHEIM R, MCNULTY A, TAPSALL JW: Increasing gonorrhoea reports - not only in London. Lancet (2000) 335:1908.
   Google Scholar
• WAUGH MA: Task force for the urgent response to the epidemics of sexually transmitted diseases in eastern Europe and central Asia. Sex. Transm. Inf. (1999) 75:72–73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION SCIENTIFIC GROUP: Neisseria gorrorrhoeae and gonococcal infections. Technical report series, 616. World Health Organisation, Geneva (1978).
   Google Scholar
• LAGA M, MANOKA A, KIVUVU M et al.: Non-ulcerative sexually transmitted disease as a risk factor for HIV-1 transmission. Results of a cohort study. Acquit: Immune Defic. Syndr. (1993) 7:95–102.
   Google Scholar
• COHEN MS, HOFFMAN IF, ROYCE RA eta].: Reduction of concentration of HIV-1 in semen after treatment of urethritis: implications for prevention of transmission of HIV-1. Lancet (1997) 349:1848-1873. •Analysis of the interaction between gonorrhoea and HIV transmission.
   Google Scholar
• COHEN MS: Sexually transmitted diseases enhance HIV transmission: no longer a hypothesis. Lancet (1998) 351 (Suppl. III):5-7. •Analysis of the interaction between gonorrhoea and HIV transmission.
   Google Scholar
• HAIZLIP J, ISBEY SF, HAMILTON HA et al.: Time required for elimination of Neisseria gorrorrhoeae from the urogenital tract in men with symptomatic urethritis: comparison of oral and im. single-dose therapy. Sex. Transm. Dis. (1995) 22:145–148.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HOLMES KK, JOHNSON DW, FLOYD TM: Studies on venereal disease I: Probenecid-procaine penicillin G combination and tetracycline hydrochloride in the treatment of 'penicillin-resistant' gonorrhea in men. JAMA (1967) 202:125–130.
   Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW: The biology of Neisseria gorrorrhoeae: a model of adaptation and survival. Verrereology (2000) 13:63–69.
   Google Scholar
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION: Guidelines for the management of sexually transmitted infections WHO/HIV_AIDS/ (2001).01;WHO/RHR/01.10:pp 1–5. World Health Organisation, Geneva (2001).
   Google Scholar
• MAYAUD P, HAWKES S, MABEY D: Advances in control of sexually transmitted diseases in developing countries. Lancet (1998) 351(Suppl. III):29–32.
   Google Scholar
• ZENILMAN JM, DEAL CD: Gonorrhea: epidemiology, control, prevention. In: Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Vaccines, Prevention and Control. Stanberry LR, Bernstein DI (Eds.), Academic Press, London, UK (2000):369–385.
   Google Scholar
• BROOKS GF, DONEGAN EA: Uncomplicated gonococcal infection. In: Corrococcal Infection. Brooks GF, Donegan EA (Eds.), Edward Arnold, London, UK (1985):85–104.
   Google Scholar
• JEPHCOTT AE: Microbiological diagnosisof gonorrhoea. Cerritourin. Med. (1997) 73:245–252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PEELING RW, MABEY DCW, HOLMES KK: Molecular techniques for HIV and STDs. Implications for research and disease control in the new millennium. In: Methods in Molecular Microbiology Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Peeling RW, Spalding PF (Eds.), Humana Press, New Jersey, USA (1999):219–233.
   Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW: Surveillance of antibiotic resistance in Neisseria gorrorrhoeae and implications for the therapy of gonorrhoea. Int. J. STD AIDS (1995) 6:233–236.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION WESTERN PACIFIC REGION GONOCOCCAL ANTIMICROBIAL SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMME: Surveillance of antibiotic susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the WHO Western Pacific Region 1992-1994. Cerritourni. Med. (1997) 73:355–361.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DILLON JA, LI H, SEALY J, RUBEN M, PRABHAKAR P: Antimicrobial susceptibility of Neisseria gorrorrhoeae isolates from three Caribbean countries: Trinidad, Guyana and St. Vincent. Sex. Transm. Dis. (2001) 28:508–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BACKMAN M, JACOBSON K, RINGERTZ S: The virgin population of Neisseria gorrorrhoeae in Stockholm has decreased and antimicrobial resistance is increasing. Cerritourni. Med. (1996) 71:234–238.
   Google Scholar
• KAMENDO F, FORSLIN L, DANIELSSON D: Epidemiology and aetiology of acute non-tuberculous salpingitis. A comparison between the early 1970s and the early 1980s with special reference to gonorrhoea and use of intrauterine contraceptive device. Cenitourin. Med. (1990) 66:324–329.
   Google Scholar
• GARCIA PJ, CHAPELS, HOLMES KK: Sexually transmitted diseases in four Latin American countries over a six year period: 1989–1994. 11th meeting of the International Sarno, for STD Research. New Orleans, USA (1995). Abstract 68.
   Google Scholar
• GROSSKURTH H, MOSHAF, TODD J et al.: Impact of improved treatment of sexually transmitted diseases on HIV transmission in rural Tanzania: randomised controlled trial. Lancet (1995) 346:530-536. •Important article on the benefits of STD treatment in reducing HIV transmission.
   Google Scholar
• SCHACHTER J: Chlamydial infections. N Engl. J. Med. (1978) 298:490–495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION: 1998 guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Morb. Mort. Weekly Rep. (1998) 47(No. RR-1):59-69. •Respected recommendations for treatment of gonococcal disease manifestations. To be revised early in 2002.
   Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW, KINCHINGTON M: The frequency of co-infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlanaydia trachomatis in men and women in eastern Sydney. Pathology (1996) 28:84–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION WESTERN PACIFIC REGION GONOCOCCAL ANTIMICROBIAL SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMME: Surveillance of antibiotic susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the WHO Western Pacific Region (2000). Commun. Dis. knell. (2001) 25:274–276.
   Google Scholar
• OKEKE IN, LAMIKANRA A, EDELMAN R: Socioeconomic and behavioural factors leading to acquired bacterial resistance to antibiotics in developing countries. Enaerg. Infect. Dis. (1999) 5:18–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LAGA M: Epidemiology and control of sexually transmitted diseases in developing countries. Sex. Trauma. Dis. (1994) 21(Suppl.):S45–50.
   Google Scholar
• ADU-SARKODIE YA: Antimicrobial self-medication in patients attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic. Int. j. STD AIDS (1997) 8:456–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ABELLANOSA I, NICHTER M: Antibiotic prophylaxis among commercial sex workers in Cebu City, Philippines. Patterns of use and perceptions of efficacy. Sex. Boma Dis. (1996) 23:407–412.
   Google Scholar
• VAN DER VEEN F, FRANSEN L: Drugs for STD management in developing countries: choice, procurement, cost and financing. Sex. Transan. Ian: (1998) 74\(Suppl. 0:5166–5174.
   Google Scholar
• TAYLOR RB, SHAKOOR, BEHRENS RH: Drug quality, a contributor to drug resistance? Lancet (1995) 346:122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCGREGOR A: Counterfeit drugs flood developing world. Lancet (1997) 350:1690.
   Google Scholar
• BIGNELL CJ: European guideline for the management of gonorrhoea. hat. j. STD AIDS (2001) 12\(Suppl. 3):27–29. •Respected recommendations for the treatment of gonococcal disease manifestations.
   Google Scholar
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION: Gonococcal infections. In: Guidelines for the management of sexually transmitted infections. WHO/HIV AIDS/(2001).01; WHO/ RHR/01.10:pp 32–35. World Health Organisation, Geneva (2001). •Respected recommendations for the treatment of gonococcal disease manifestations.
   Google Scholar
• LAGA M, PLUMMER FA, PIOT P etal.: Prophylaxis of gonococcal and chlamydial ophthalmia neonatorum. N Engl. j. Med. (1988) 318:653–657.
   Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW, LIMNIOS EA, THACKER C et al.: High level quinolone resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: a report of two cases. Sex. Transna. Dis. (1995) 22:310–311.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SCHWEBKE JR, WHITINGTON W, RICE RJ etal.: Trends in susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to ceftriaxone from 1985 through 1991. Antlinicrob. Agent Chemother. (1995) 39:917–920.
   Google Scholar
• MURATANI T, AKASAKA S, KOBAYASHI T et al.: Outbreak of cefozopran (penicillin, oral cephems and aztreonam)-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Japan. Antimicrob. Agent Chemother. (2001) 45:3603-3606. •A recent paper detailing treatment failure with cephamycin therapy, spread of an antibiotic resistant 'clone' of gonococci and increasing MIC values to p-lactam antibiotics in Japan.
   Google Scholar
• BELLAND RJ, MORRISON SG, ISON C, HUANG JC: Neisseria gonorrhoeae acquires mutations in analogous regions of gyrA and parC in fluoroquinolone-resistant isolates. Md. Microbial. (1994) 14:371–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHULTZ TR, TAPSALL JW, WHITE PA: Correlation of in vitro susceptibilities to newer quinolones of naturally-occurring quinolone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae strains with changes in GyrA and ParC. Annanicrob. Agent Cheanother. (2001) 45:734–738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KNAPP JS, FOX KK, TREES DL, WHITTINGTON WL: Fluoroquinolone resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Enaerg. hal: Dis. (1997) 3:33–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• TREES DL, SANDUL AL, WHITTINGTON WL, KNAPP JS: Identification of novel mutation patterns in the parC gene of ciprofloxacin-resistant isolates of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Antimicrob. Agent Chnnother. (1998) 42:2103–2105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MANESS MJ, FOSTER GC, SPARLING PF: Ribosomal resistance to streptomycin and spectinomycin in Neisseria gonorrhoeae. BacterioL (1974) 120:1293–1299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BOSLEGO JW, TRAMONT EC, TAKAFUJI ET et al.: Effect of spectinomycin use on the prevalence of spectinomycin resistant and of penicillinase-producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae. N Engl. j. Med. (1987) 317:272–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LIM RB, RAJAN VS, GIAM YC et al.: Two dose Augmentin treatment of acute gonorrhoea in men. Br I Vener. Dis. (1984) 60:161–163.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LIM RB, THIRUMOORTHY T, LEE CT, SNG EH, TAN T: Three regimens of procaine penicillin, Augmentin and probenecid for treating acute gonorrhoea in men. Cenitounn Med. (1986) 62:82-8556. 23.
   Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW, PHILLIPS EA, MORRISLM: Chromosomally mediated intrinsic resistance to penicillin of penicillinase-producing strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolated in Sydney: guide to treatment with Augmentin. Cenitounn. Med. (1987) 63:305–308.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HANDSFIELD HH, DALU ZA, MARTIN DH et al.: Multicenter trial of single-dose azithromycin vs. ceftriaxone in the treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhea. Sex. Transna. Dis. (1994) 21:107–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW, SHULTZ TR, LIMNIOS EA, DONOVAN B, LUM G, MULHALL BP: Failure of azithromycin therapy in gonorrhea and discorrelation with laboratory test parameters. Sex. Transan. Dis. (1998) 25:505–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DILLON JAR, RUBABAZA JP A, BENZAKEN AS et al.: Reduced susceptibility to azithromycin and high percentage of penicillin and tetracycline resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates from Brazil, 1998. Sex. Transan. Dis. (2001) 28:521–526.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• YOUNG H, MOYES A, MCMILLAN A: Azithromycin and erythromycin resistant Neisseria goriarrhoeae following treatment with azithromycin. bit .j STD AIDS (1997) 8:299–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JOHNSON SR, MORSE SA: Antibiotic resistance in Neisseriagortorrhoeae genetics and mechanisms of resistance. Sex. Trarism. Dis. (1988) 15:217–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MORSE SA, JOHNSON SR, BIDDLE JW, ROBERTS MC: High-level tetracycline resistance in Neisseria goriarrhoeae is result of acquisition of streptococcal tetM determinant. Aritimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1986) 30:664–670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GASCOYNE-BINZI DM, HERITAGE J, HAWKEY PM: Nucleotide sequences of the tet(M) genes from the American and Dutch type tetracycline resistance plasmids of Neisseria goriarrhoeae. j Aritimicrob. Chemother. (1993) 32:667–676.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• TURNER A, GOUGH KR, LEEMING JP: Molecular epidemiology of the tedVI genes in Neisseria gonarrhaeae. Sex. Transm. Inf (1999) 75:60–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISON CA: Antimicrobial agents and gonorrhoea: therapeutic choice, resistance and susceptibility testing. Genitouriri. Med. (1996) 72:253–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISON CA, DILLON JA, TAPSALL JW: The epidemiology of global resistance among Neisseria goriarrhoeae and Haemaphilus ducreyi Lancet (1998) 351 (Suppl. III):8–11.
   Google Scholar
• DJAJAKUSUMAH T, SUGIGDOADI S, MEHEUS A, VAN DYCK E: Plasmid patterns and antimicrobial susceptibilities of Neisseria goriarrhoeae in Bandung, Indonesia. Trans. Royal Soc. Trap. Med. Hyg. (1998) 92:105–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WEST B, CHANGALUCHA J, GROSSKURTH H et al.: Antimicrobial susceptibility, auxotype and plasmid content of Neisseria goriarrhoeae in northern Tanzania: emergence of high level plasmid mediated tetracycline resistance. Genitouriri. Med. (1995) 71:9–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VAN DYCK E, CRABBE F, NZILA N et al.: Increasing resistance of Neisseria goriarrhoeae in west and central Africa. Consequences on therapy of gonococcal infection. Sex. Tranvia. Dis. (1997) 24:32–37.
   Google Scholar
• DALY CC, HOFFMAN I, HOBBS M et al.: Development of an antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance system for Neisseria goriarrhoeae in Malawi: comparison of methods. j Clin. Microbial (1997) 35:2985–2988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LKHAMSUREN E, SHULTZ TR, LIMNIOS EA, TAPSALL JW: The antibiotic susceptibility of Neisseria goriarrhoeae isolated in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Sex. Transm. Irif (2001) 77:218–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WEST B, CHANGALUCHA J, GROSSKURTH H et al.: Antimicrobial susceptibility, auxotype and plasmid content of Neisseria goriarrhoeae in northern Tanzania: emergence of high level plasmid mediated tetracycline resistance. Genii-our-1A Med. (1995) 71:9–12.
   Google Scholar
• BHALLA P, SETHI K, REDDY BSN, MATHUR MD: Antimicrobial susceptibility and plasmid profile of Neisseria goriarrhoeae in India [New Delhi] Sex. Trarism. Inf. (1998) 74:210–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TAPSALL JW, PHILLIPS EA, COSSINS YM etal.: Penicillin sensitivity of gonococci in Australia: the development of an Australian gonococcal surveillance programme. Br I Verier. Dis. (1984) 60:226-230. •An example of national programmes for the surveillance of gonococcal susceptibility.
   Google Scholar
• AUSTRALIAN GONOCOCCAL SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMME: Annual report of the Australian gonococcal surveillance programme, 2000. Commun. Dis. Intell (2001) 25:59-63. •An example of national programmes for the surveillance of gonococcal susceptibility.
   Google Scholar
• CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL: Sexually transmitted diseases surveillance 1999 supplement: gonococcal isolate surveillance project (GISP) annual report - 1999. Atlanta, Georgia: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, October (2000). •An example of national programmes for the surveillance of gonococcal susceptibility.
   Google Scholar
• THE GRASP STEERING GROUP: Gonococcal resistance to antimicrobials surveillance programme (GRASP) year 2000 report. London: Public Health Laboratory Service (2001). •An example of national programmes for the surveillance of gonococcal susceptibility.
   Google Scholar
• DILLON JR: National microbiological surveillance of the susceptibility of gonococcal isolates to antimicrobial agents. Can. J Infect. Dis. (1992) 3:202-206. •An example of national programmes for the surveillance of gonococcal susceptibility.
   Google Scholar
• BARBOSA-CESNIK CT, GERBASE A, HEYMANN D: STD vaccines - an overview. Genii-mini]. Med. (1997) 73:336–342.
   Google Scholar