112
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Drug interactions in the management of HIV infection

, &
Pages 233-253 | Published online: 22 Apr 2005

Bibliography

  • DASGUPTA A, OKHUYSEN PC: Pharmacokinetic and other drug interactions in patients with AIDS. Ther. Drug Monit. (2001) 23:591–605.
  • VAN CLEEF GF, FISHER EJ, POLK RE: Drug interaction potential with inhibitors of HIV protease. Pharmacotherapy (1997) 42:1553–1556.
  • SHAPIRO LE, SHEAR NH: Drug interactions: proteins, pumps, and P450s. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol (2002) 47:467–484.
  • KING JR, WYNN H, BRUNDAGE R, ACOSTA EP: Pharmacokinetic enhancement of protease inhibitor therapy. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (2004) 43(5):291–310.
  • •An extensive review of pharmacoltinetics and clinical trial data - very well referenced.
  • Abbott Laboratories: Kaletra® (lopinavir/ritonavir) package insert. Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL, USA (2004).
  • Bristol-Myers Squibb Company: Reyatae (atazanavir) package insert. Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, Princeton, NJ, USA (2004).
  • Agouron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Viracept® (nelfinavir tablets and oral powder) package insert. Agouron Pharmaceuticals, Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA (2004).
  • Roche laboratories, Inc.: Fortovase' (saquinavir) package insert. Roche Laboratories, Inc., Nutley, NJ, USA (2003).
  • Bristol-Myers Squibb: Sustiva® (efavirenz capsules and tablets) package insert. Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, NJ, USA (2004).
  • Merck & Co., Inc.: Crixivan® (indinavir sulphate) package insert. Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA (2004).
  • KNUPP CA, MILBRATH R, BARBHAIYA RH: Effect of time of food administration on the bioavailability of didanosine from a chewable tablet formulation. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1993) 33:568–573.
  • Roche laboratories, Inc.: Hivid® (zalcitabine tablets). Roche laboratories, Inc., R Nutley, NJ, USA (2002).
  • PERRY CM, NOBLE S: Didanosine: an updated review of its use in HIV infection. Drugs (1999) 58(6):1099–1135.
  • MORSE GD, FISCHL MA, SHELTON MJ et al.: Single-dose pharmacokinetics of delavirdine mesylate and didanosine in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infections. Antimicrob. Agent Chemother. (1997) 41:169–174.
  • MUMMANENI V, KAUL S, KNUPP CA: Single-dose pharmacokinetic interaction study of didanosine and indinavir sulfate in healthy subjects. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1997) 37:865.
  • Janssen Pharmaceutical Products: Sporanox® (itraconazole). Janssen Pharmaceutical Products, Titusville, NJ, USA (2004).
  • General considerations and an outline survey of some basic interaction mechanisms. In: Stockleys Drug Interactions (6th edn). Stockley IH (Ed.), Pharmaceutical Press, London, UK (2002):1–14.
  • •A good reference text, exhaustive listing of drug interactions - very well referenced.
  • LEWIS DF: 57 varieties: the human cytochromes P450. Pharmacogenomics (2004) 5(3):305–318.
  • PASCUSSI JM, GERBAL-CHALOIN S, DAUJAT M et al.: CYP gene induction by xenobiotics and drugs. In: Drug Metabolizing Enzymes. Lee JS, Obach SR, Fisher MB (Eds), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, USA (2003):337–365.
  • YEW WW: Clinical significant interactions with drugs used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Drug Saf (2002) 25:111–133.
  • •An extensive review of drug interaction studies - well referenced.
  • GOLDSMITH DR, PERRY CM: Atazanavir. Drugs (2003) 63(16):1679–1693.
  • PISCITELLI SC, GALLICANO KD: Interactions among drugs for HIV and opportunistic infections. N Engl. J. Med. (2001) 344(13):984–996.
  • CORBETT AH, LIM ML, KASHUBA AD: Kaletra (lopinavir/ritonavir). Ann. Pharmacother. (2002) 36(7-8):1193–1203.
  • JUSTESEN US, KLITGAARD NA, BROSEN K, PEDERSEN C: Amprenavir is an effective inducer of delavirdine metabolism. Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, USA (2002):442–W
  • TRAN JQ, PETERSEN C, GARRETT M et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between amprenavir and delavirdine: evidence of induced clearance by amprenavir. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (2002) 72:615–626.
  • PFISTER M, LABBE L, LU J-F et al.: Effect of coadministration of nelfinavir, indinavir and saquinavir on the pharmacokinetics of amprenavir. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (2002) 72:133–141.
  • DECKER CJ, LAITINEN LM, BRIDSON GW et al.: Metabolism of amprenavir in liver microsomes: role of CYP3A4 inhibition for drug interactions. Pharm. Sci. (1998) 87:803–807.
  • Glaxo Wellcome, Inc.: Agenerase® (amprenavir). Glaxo Wellcome, Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC, USA (2004).
  • CORBETT AH, ERON JJ, FISCUS SA, REZK NL, KASHUBA AD: The pharmacokinetics, safety, and initial virologic response of a triple-protease inhibitor salvage regimen containing amprenavir, saquinavir, and ritonavir. J. AIDS (2004) 36(4):921–928.
  • YEH R, GAVER V, PARK J et ell.: Lopinavir/ritonavir induces CYP2C9 and 2C19 activity, as measured by warfarin and omeprazole biomarkers in healthy human volunteers. Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Clinical Pharmacology of HIV Therapy. Rome, Italy (2004):13.
  • BALDINI F, RIZZO MG, HOETELMANS RMW et al: A prospective study of deep salvage therapy with lopinavir/r, amprenavir, and NRTIs: final 24-week data, pharmacokinetics and association of drug levels/drug susceptibility with virologic response. Proceedings of the 91 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, USA (2002):423.
  • RAGUIN G, TABURET AM, CHENE G et al.: Pharmacokinetic parameters and virological response to the combination of lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) and amprenavir (APV) in HIV-infected patients with multiple treatment failures: week-6 results of Puzzle 1-ANRS study. Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, USA (2002):420.
  • PISCITELLI S, BECHTEL C, SADLER B et al.: The addition of a second protease inhibitor eliminates amprenavir-efavirenz drug interactions and increases plasma amprenavir concentrations. Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunitic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2000):78.
  • KUROWSKI M, STASZEWSKI S, ARSLAN A et al.: Influence of 50 mg, 100 mg and 200 mg ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of amprenavir after multiple doses in healthy volunteers for once daily and twice daily regimens. Proceedings of the Pt IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment. Buenos Aires, Argentina (2001):351.
  • SADLER BM, PILIERO PJ, PRESTON SL et al.: Pharmacokinetics and safety of amprenavir and ritonavir following multiple-dose, co-administration to healthy volunteers. AIDS (2001) 15:1009–1018.
  • JUSTESEN US, KLITGAARD NA, BROSEN K, PEDERSEN C: Amprenavir is an effective inducer of delavirdine metabolism. Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, USA (2002):442–W
  • FALLOON J, PISCITELLI S, VOGEL S et al.: Combination therapy with amprenavir, abacavir and efavirenz in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients failing a protease-inhibitor regimen: pharmacokinetic drug interactions and antiviral activity. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2000) 30:313–318.
  • AGARWALA S, RUSSO R, MUMMANENI V, RANDALL D et al: Steady state pharmacokinetic (PK) interaction study of atazanavir (ATV) with ritonavir (RTV) in healthy subjects. Proceedings of the 4.2na Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Diego, USA (2002):H–1716.
  • BOFFITO M, KUROWSKI M, KRUSE G et al.: Atazanavir enhances saquinavir hard gel concentrations in a ritonavir-boosted once daily regimen. Proceedings of the I Ith Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2004):607.
  • PRESTON S, PILIERO P, O'MARA E et al.: Evaluation of the steady state interaction between atazanavir (ATV) and efavirenz (EFV). Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, USA (2002):443.
  • WIRE MB, NADERER OJ, MASTERMAN AL et al: The pharmacokinetic interaction between GW433908 and lopinavir/ritonavir (APV10011 and APV10012). Proceedings of the I Ph Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2004):612.
  • GlaxoSmithKline: Lexive' (fos-amprenavir). GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA (2004).
  • KASHUBA ADM, TIERNEY C, DOWNEY GF et al.: Combining GW433908 with lopinavir/ritonavir in HIV-1 infected adults results in substantial reductions in amprenavir and lopinavir concentrations: pharmacokinetic results from adult ACTG protocol A5143. Proceedings of the 43r1 Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Chicago, USA (2003):H–855a.
  • CORBETT AH, DAVIDSON L, PARK JJ et al.: Dose separation strategies to overcome the pharmacokinetic interaction of a triple protease inhibitor regimen containing fosamprenavir, lopinavir and ritonavir. Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2004):611.
  • BOFFITO M, DICKINSON L, HILL Aet al.: Steady state pharmacokinetics of saquinavir hard gel/fosamprenavir 1000/700 plus 100 mg and 200 mg of ritonavir twice daily in HIV + patients. Proceedings of the 1 lth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2004):608.
  • WIRE MB, BALLOW C, PRESTON SL et al.: An assessment of plasma amprenavir (APV) pharmacokinetics (PK) following administration of two GW433908 (908) and ritonavir (RTV) regimens in combination with efavirenz (EFV) in healthy adult subjects (APV10010). Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Seattle, USA (2002):431.
  • YUEN G, ANDERSON R, DANIELS RD et al.: Investigations of nelfinavir mesylate Pharmacokinetic interactions with indinavir and ritonavir. Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Washington D.C., USA (1997):428.
  • HAVLIR DV, RIDDLER S, SQUIRES K et al.: Co-administration of indinavir and nelfinavir in a twice daily regimen: preliminary safety, pharmacokinetic and antiviral activity results. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Chicago, USA (1998):393.
  • SQUIRES K, RIDDLER S, HAVLIR D et al.: Co-administration of indinavir 1000 mg and with escalating nelfinavir dose in a twice daily regimen: preliminary safety, Pharmacokinetic and anti-viral activity. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Denver, USA (1998).
  • SQUIRES K, RIDDLER S, HAVLIR D et al.: Co-administration of indinavir 1200 mg with nelfinavir 1250 mg in a twice daily regimen: preliminary safety, PK activity. Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Chicago, USA (1999).
  • VAN HEESWIJK RPG, VELDKAMP Al, HOETELMANS RMW et al.: The steady-state plasma pharmacokinetics of indinavir alone or in combination with ritonavir in twice daily dosing regimens in HIV-1 infected patients. AIDS (1998) 12\(Suppl. 4):531 (Abstract).
  • BURGER DM, HUGEN PWH, PRINS J et al.: Pharmacokinetics of indinavir in a bid regimen with or without low-dose ritonavir. AIDS (1998) 12\(Suppl. 4):S10 (Abstract).
  • HSU A, GRANNEMAN GR, CAO G et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between ritonavir and indinavir in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 42:2784–2791.
  • BURGER DM, HUGEN PWH, PRINS JM et al.: Pharmacokinetics of an indinavir/ritonavir 800/100 mg bid regimen. Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Chicago, USA (1999):363.
  • MERRILL DP, MANION DJ, CHOU T et al.: Antagonism between human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 protease inhibitors indinavir and saquinavir in vitro. J. Infect. Dis. (1997) 176:265–268.
  • LAUNAY O, PEYTAVIN G, FLANDRE P et al.: Pharmacokinetic (PK) interaction between nevirapine (NVP) and indinavir (IDV) in ANRS 081 trial. Proceedings of the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Toronto, Canada (2000):1632.
  • MURPHY RL, SOMMADOSSI J, LAMSON M et al.: Antiviral effect and pharmacokinetic interaction between nevirapine and indinavir in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus Type 1.1 Infect. Dis. (1999) 179:1116–1123.
  • KLEIN C, BERTZ R, ASHBRENNER E et al.: Assessment of the multiple-dose pharmacokinetic interaction of lopinavir/ritonavir with nelfinavir. Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, USA (2003):536.
  • BERTZ RJ, FOIT C, ASHBRENNER E et al.: Assessment of the steady-state pharmacokinetic interaction of lopinavir/ritonavir with either indinavir or saquinavir in healthy subjects. Proceedings of the 42thl Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Diego,USA (2002):A–1822.
  • BERTZ R, LAM W, HSU A et al.: Assessment of the pharmacokinetic interaction between ABT-378/ritonavir (ABT-378/r) and efavirenz (EFV) in healthy volunteers and in HIV+ subjects. Proceedings of the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy Toronto, Canada (2000):424.
  • HSU A, ISAACSON J, BRUN S et al.: Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis of lopinavir-ritonavir in combination with efavirenz and two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in extensively pretreated human immunodeficiency virus infected patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:350–359.
  • KUROWSKI M, KAESER B, SAWYER Aet al.: Low-dose ritonavir moderately enhances nelfinavir exposure. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (2002) 72:123–132.
  • KEARNEY BP, REUL T, COLEMAN R et al.: Pharmacokinetics of adefovir dipivoxil in combination with saquinavir, indinavir, efavirenz, delavirdine, didanosine, or lamivudine in normal volunteers. Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2000):86.
  • MOYLE G, POZNIAK A, OPRAVIL M et al.: The SPICE study: 48-week activity of combinations of saquinavir soft gelatin and nelfinavir with and without nucleoside analogues. Study of Protease Inhibitor Combinations in Europe. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. (2000) 23(2):128–137.
  • COX SR, SCHNECK DW, HERMAN BD et al.: Delavirdine (DLV) and nelfinavir (NFV): a pharmacokinetic (PK) drug-drug interaction study in healthy adult volunteers. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Chicago, USA (1998):345.
  • VILLANI P, REGAZZI MB, CASTELLI F et al.: Pharmacokinetics of efavirenz (EFV) alone and in combination therapy with nelfinavir (NFV) in HIV-1 infected patients. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1999) 48:712–715.
  • FISKE WD, BENEDEK SJ, WHITE SJ et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between efavirenz and nelfinavir mesylate in healthy volunteers. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Chicago, USA (1998):349.
  • SKOWRON G, LEOUNG G, KERR B et al.: Lack of pharmacokinetic interaction between nelfinavir and nevirapine. AIDS (1998) 12(10):1243–1244.
  • VILARO J, MASCARO J, COLOMER J et al.: The pharmacokinetics of combination therapy with nelfinavir (NFV) plus neviarapine (NVP) in HIV positive patients. Proceedings of the 41t Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy. Chicago, USA (2001):A–497.
  • MERRY C, BARRY MG, MULCAHY F et al.: Saquinavir pharmacokinetics alone and in combination with ritonavir in HIV-infected patients. AIDS (1997) 11(4):F29–F33.
  • FLEXNER C: Dual protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected patients: Pharmacologic rationale and clinical benefits. Ann. Rev. PharmacoL ToxicoL (2000) 40:649–674.
  • HSU A, GRANNEMAN GR, CAO G et al.: Pharmacokinetic interactions between two human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitors, ritonavir and saquinavir. Clin. PharmacoL Ther. (1998) 63:453–473.
  • KUROWSKI M, ARSLAN A, MOECKLINGHOFF C, HILL A: Comparative pharmacokinetics of twice daily (b.i.d.) Fortovase/ritonavir and Invirase/ritonavir. Proceedings of the 2'd International Workshop on Clinical Pharmacology of HIV Therapy. Noordwijk, The Netherlands (2000:3.2.
  • KILBY JM, SFAKIANOS G, GIZZI N et al.: Safety and pharmacokinetics of once daily regimens of soft-gel capsule saquinavir Plus minidose ritonavir in human immunodeficiency virus-negative adults. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2000) 44:2672–2678.
  • FISKE W, BENEDEK IH et al.: Pharmacokinetics of efavirenz (EFV) and ritonavir (RIT) after multiple oral doses in healthy volunteers. Proceedings of the 1.2th International Conference on AIDS. Geneva, Switzerland (1998):42269.
  • TRAN JQ, PETERSEN C, GARRETT M et al.: Delavirdine (DLV) significantly increases exposure of low dose ritonavir (RTV) in healthy volunteers. Proceedings of the 4.1 Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Chicago, Illinois, USA (2001):A–494.
  • Agouron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Rescriptor® (delavirdine). Agouron Pharmaceuticals, Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA (2001).
  • PILIERO PJ, PRESTON SL, JAPOUR A et al.: Pharmacokinetics (PK) of the combination of ritonavir (RTV) plus saquinavir (SQV) with and without efavirenz (EFV), in healthy volunteers. Proceedings of the 4.1' Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy Chicago, USA (2001):A–495.
  • Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Viramune® (nevirapine). Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, CT, USA (2004).
  • VELDKAMP Al, HOETELMANS RMW, BEIJNEN JH et al.: DONUT: The pharmacokinetics (PK) of once daily nevirapine (NVP) and efavirenz (EFV) when used in combination. Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2000):80.
  • SCHNIKEL AH, JONKER Mammalian drug efflux transporters of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) family: an overview. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. (2003) 55:3–29.
  • CHRISTIANS U: Transport proteins and intestinal metabolism. Ther. Drug Monit. (2004) 26(2):104–106.
  • HUISMAN MT, SMIT JW, SCHINKEL AH: Significance of P-glycoprotein for the pharmacology and clinical use of HIV protease inhibitors. AIDS (2000) 14:237–242.
  • GIMENEZ F, FERNANDEZ C, MABONDZO A: Transport of HIV protease inhibitors through the blood-brain barrier and interactions with the efflux proteins, P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance proteins. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. (2004) 36(2):649–658.
  • KASHUBA AD, BERTINO JS Jr: Mechanisms of drug interactions. In: Drug Interactions in Infectious Diseases. Piscitellli SC, Rodvold KA (Eds), Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey (2000:13–38.
  • ••A great reference text - well referenced.
  • GIBALDI M, SCHWARTZ MA: Apparent effect of probenecid on the distribution of penicillin in man. Clin. PharmacoL Ther. (1968) 9:345.
  • LASKIN OL, DE MIRANDA P, KING DH et al.: Effects of probenecid on the pharmacokinetics and elimination of acyclovir in humans. Anti microb. Agents Chemother. (1982) 21:804–807.
  • LIN JH, YAMAZAKI M: Role of P-glycoprotein in pharmacokinetics: clinical implications. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (2003) 42(1):59–98.
  • RENGELSHAUSEN J, GOGGELMANN C, BURHENNE J et al.: Contribution of increased oral bioavailability and reduced nonglomerular renal clearance of digoxin to the digoxin-clarithromycin interaction. Br. J. Clin. PharmacoL (2003) 56:32–38.
  • JALAVA KM, PARTANAN J, NEUVONEN PJ: Itraconazole decreases renal clearance of digoxin. Ther. Drug Monit. (1997) 19(1):609–613.
  • ROLLOT F, NAZAL EM, CHAUVELOT-MOACHON Let al.: Tenofovir-related Fanconi Syndrome with nephrogenic diabetes insipidus in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: the role of lopinavir-ritonavir-didanosine. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2003) 37:174–176.
  • KEARNEY BP, MITTAN A. SAYRE J et al.: Pharmacokinetic drug interaction and long term safety profile of tenofovir DF and lopinavir/ritonavir. Proceedings of the 4P' Interscience Conference of Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. Chicago, USA (2003):A–1617.
  • FICHTENBAUM CJ, GERBER JG: Interactions between antiretroviral drugs and drugs used for the therapy of the metabolic complications encountered during HIV infection. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (2002) 41(14):1195–1211.
  • •A very comprehensive review article.
  • Abbott Laboratories: Norvir® (ritonavir capsules and oral solution). Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL, USA (2003).
  • YAMREUDEEWONG W, DEBISSCHOP M, MARTIN Let al.: Potentially significant drug interactions of Class III antiarrhythmic drugs. Drug. Saf (2003) 26(0:421–438.
  • Roche Laboratories, Inc.: Invirase® (saquinavir mesylate). Roche Laboratories, Inc., Nutley, NJ, USA (2003).
  • KIRKWOOD CK, MELTON ST: Anxiety Disorders. In: Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach. DiPiro JT (Ed.), Elsevier Science Publishing Co, New York, USA (2002):1289–1310.
  • GREENBLATT DJ: Pharmacology of benzodiazipine hypnotics. J. Clin. Psychiatry (1992) 53:7–13.
  • ZALMA A, VON MOLTKE LL, GRANDA BW et al.: In vitro metabolism of trazadone by CYP3A: inhibition by ketoconazole and human immunodeficiency viral protease inhibitors. Biol. Psychiatry (2000) 47(7):655–661.
  • GREENBLATT DJ, MOLTKE LL, HARMATZ JS et al.: Short-term exposure to low-dose ritonavir impairs clearance and enhances adverse effects of trazadone. Clin. PharmacoL (2003) 43:414–422.
  • Bristol-Myers Squib Company: Desyrel® (trazodone hydrochloride). Bristol-Myers Squib Company, Princeton, NJ, USA (2003).
  • HENDRIX C, WAKEFORD J, WIRE MB et al.: Pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) evaluation of methadone (MD) enantiomers following co-administration with amprenavir (APV)
  • •• in opioid-dependent subjects. Proceedings of the 4Ifh Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy. Toronto, Canada (2000) :1649.
  • BART P-A, RIZZARDI PG, GALLANT S et al.: Methadone blood concentrations are decreased by administration of abacavir plus amprenavir. Ther. Drug Monit. (2001) 23:553–555.
  • GERBER JG, ROSENKRANZ S, SEGALY et al.: Effect of ritonavir/saquinavir on stereoselective pharmacokinetics of methadone: results of AIDS clinical trials group (ACTG) 401. J. Acq. Immune Defic. Syndr. (2001) 27:153–160.
  • GELETKO SM, ERICKSON AD: Decreased methadone effect after ritonavir initiation. Pharmacotherapy (2000) 20:93–94.
  • MCCANCE EF, RAINERY PM, FRIEDLAND G, JATLOW P: The protease inhibitor lopinavir-ritonavir may produce opiate withdrawal in methadone-maintained patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2003) 37:476–482.
  • HSYU PH, LILLIBRIDGE JH, MAROLDO Let al.: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between nelfinavir and methadone. Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Removiruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2000):87.
  • Eli Lilly and Company: Galls® (tadalafil). Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA (2003).
  • Bayer Pharmaceuticals Corporation: Levitra® (vardenafil). Bayer Pharmaceuticals Corporation, West Haven, CT, USA (2003).
  • Pfizer Labs: Viagra® (sildenafil citrate). Pfizer Labs, New York, NY, USA (2002).
  • SCHONDER KS, SHULLO MA, OKUSANYA O: Tacrolimus and lopinavir/ritonavir interaction in liver transplantation. Ann. Pharmacother. (2003) 37:1793–1796.
  • SHEIKH AM, WOLF DC, LEBOVICS E et al.: Concomitant human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor therapy markedly reduces tacrolimus metabolism and increases blood levels. Transplantation (1999) 68:307–309.
  • SCHVARCZ R, RUDBECK G, SODERDAHL G et al.: Interaction between nelfinavir and tacrolimus after orthoptic liver transplantation in a patient coinfected with HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Transplantation (2000) 69(10):2194–2195.
  • JAIN AK, VENKATARAMANAN R, FRIDELL JA et al.: Nelfinavir, a protease inhibitor, increases sirolimus levels in a liver transplantation patient: a case report. Liver Transpl. (2002) 8(9):838–840.
  • VOGEL M, VOIGT E, MICHAELIS HC et al.: Management of drug-to-drug interactions between cyclosporine A and the protease inhibitor lopinavir/ritonavir in liver-transplanted HIV-infected patients. Liver Transpl. (2004) 10(7):939–944.
  • STOCK PG, ROLAND ME, CARLSON L et al.: Kidney and liver transplantation in human Immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: a pilot safety and efficacy study. Transplantation (2003) 76(2):370–375.
  • SRINIVAS TR, KAPLAN B, MEIER-KRIESCHE HU: Mycophenolate mofetil in solid-organ transplantation. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2003) 4(12):2325–2345.
  • OUELLET D, HSU A, GRANNEMAN GR et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between ritonavir and clarithromycin. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. (1998) 64:355–362.
  • ROFFEY SJ, COLE S, COMBY P et al.: The disposition of voriconazole in mouse, rat, rabbit, guinea pig, dog and human. Drug Metab. Dispos. (2003) 31:731–741.
  • GUBBINS PO, MCCONNELL SA, PENZAK SR: Antifungal agents. In: Drug Interactions in Infectious Diseases. Piscitellli SC, Rodvold KA (Eds), Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey, USA (2001) :39–60.
  • Pfizer, Inc.: Vfend® (voriconazole tablets and injection). Pfizer, Inc., New York, NY, USA (2003).
  • VARHE A, OLKKOLA KT, NEUVONEN PJ: Effect of fluconzole dose on the extent of fluconzole-triazolam interactions. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1996) 42:465–470.
  • OUELLET D, HSU A, QIAN J et al.: Effect of ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of ethinyl oestradiol in healthy female volunteers. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1998) 46(2):111–116.
  • TACKETT D, CHILD M, AGARWALA S et al.: Atazanavir: a summary of two pharmacokinetic drug interaction studies in healthy subjects. Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, USA (2003):543.
  • VELDKAMP A, HOETELMANS R, BEIJNEN JH, MULDER JW, MEENHORST PL: Ritonavir enables combined therapy with rifampin and saquinavir. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1999) 29:1586.
  • LA PORTE C, COLBERS E, BERTZ R et al.: Pharmacokinetics of two adjusted dose regimens of lopinavir/ritonavir in combination with rifampin in healthy volunteers. Proceedings of the 42na Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents andChemotherapy. San Diego, USA (2002):A–1823.
  • FINCH CK, CHRISMAN CR, BACIEWICZ AM, SELF TH: Rifampin and rifabutin drug interactions. Arch. Intern. Med. (2002) 162:985–992.
  • •A good review - comprehensive yet succinct.
  • CDC: Updated guidelines for the use of rifamycins for the treatment of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients taking PIs or NNRTIs. MMWR (2004) 53\(No. 2).
  • ••The latest guidelines - excellent resource.
  • POLK R, BROPHY D, ISRAEL D et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between amprenavir and rifabutin or rifampin in healthy males. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2001) 45(2):502–508.
  • GARCIA AB, IBARRA AL, ETESSAM JP et al.: Protease inhibitor-induced carbamazepine toxicity. Clin. Neuropharmacol (2000) 23(4):216–218.
  • MATEU-DE ANTONIO J, GRAU S, GIMENO-BAYON J et al.: Ritonavir-induced carbamazepine toxicity. Ann. Pharmacother. (2001) 35(1):125–126.
  • LIEDTKE MD, LOCKHART SM, RATHBUN RC: Anticonvulsant and antiretroviral interactions. Annals Pharmacother. (2004) 38:482–489.
  • •A comprehensive, up-to-date review article.
  • HUGEN PW, BURGER DM, BRINKMAN K et al.: Carbamazepine-inclinavir interaction causes antiretroviral therapy failure. Ann. Pharmacother. (2000) 34:465–470.
  • LIM ML, MIN SS, ERON JJ et al.: Coadministration of lopinavir/ritonavir and phenytoin results in two-way drug interaction through cytochrome P450 induction. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. (2004) 36(5):1034–1040.
  • JANSSEN PHARMACEUTICA RESEARCH FOUNDATION: Dear Doctor Warning Letter. June 26 (1998).
  • Janssen Pharmaceutica, Inc.: Hismanal® (astemizole). Janssen Pharmaceutica, Inc., Titusville, NJ, USA (1998).
  • Janssen Pharmaceutica, Inc.: Propulsid® (cisapride). Janssen Pharmaceutica, Inc., Titusville, NJ, USA (2000).
  • PARDO REY C, YEBRA M, BORALLO M et al.: Irreversible coma, ergotamine and ritonavir. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2003) 37(5):e72–e73.
  • MILDVAN D, YARRISH R, MARSHAK A et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between nevirapine and ethinyl estradiol/norethindrone when administered concurrently to HIV infected women. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. (2002) 29(5):471–477.
  • CLARKE S, MULCAHY F, TJIA J et al.: Pharmacokinetic interactions of nevirapine and methadone and guidelines for use of nevirapine to treat injection drug users. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2001) 33:1595–1597.
  • OTERO MJ, FUERTES A, SANCHEZ R, LUNA G: Nevirapine-induced withdrawal symptoms in HIV patients on methadone maintenance programme: an alert. AIDS (1999) 13:1004–1005.
  • ALTICE FL, FRIEDLAND GH, COONEY EL: Nevirapine-induced opiate withdrawal among injection drug users with HIV infection receiving methadone. AIDS (1999) 13:957–962.
  • HEELON MW, MEADE LB: Methadone withdrawal when starting an antiretroviral regimen including nevirapine. Pharmacotherapy (1999) 19:471–472.
  • ROBINSON P, LAMSON M, GIGLIOTTI M et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between nevirapine and rifampin. Proceedings of the XII International AIDS Conference. Geneva, Switzerland (1998):60623.
  • DEAN G, BACK D, DE RUITER A. Effect of tuberculosis therapy on nevirapine trough plasma concentration (correspondence). AIDS (1999) 13:2489–2490.
  • RIBERA E, POU L, LOPEZ RM et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between nevirapine and rifampicin in HIV-infected patients with tuberculosis. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Synr. (2001) 28:450–453.
  • OLIVIA J, MORENO S, SANZ J et al.: Co-administration of rifampin and nevirapine in HIV-infected patients with tuberculosis (correspondence). AIDS (2003) 17:637–642.
  • WARD BA, GORSKI JC, JONES DR et al.: The cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6) is the main catalyst of efavirenz primary and secondary metabolism: implication for HIV/AIDS therapy and utility of efavirenz as a substrate marker of CYP2B6 catalytic activity. J. PharmacoL Exp. Ther. (2003) 306(1):287–300.
  • DUVAL X, MOING VI,, LONGUET P et al.: Efavirenz-induced decrease in plasma amprenavir levels in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients and correction by ritonavir. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother. (2000) 44:2593.
  • TACKETT D, CHILD M, AGARWALA S et al.: Atazanavir: a summary of two pharmacokinetic drug interaction studies in healthy subjects. Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, USA (2003):543.
  • GERBER JG, FICHTENBAUM CJ, ROSENKRANZ S et al.: Efavirenz is a significant inducer of simvastatin and atorvastatin metabolism: results of ACTG A5108 study. Proceedings of the I lth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2004):603.
  • LOPEZ-CORTES L, RUIZ-VALDERAS R, VICIANA P et al.: Pharmacokinetic interactions between efavirenz and rifampin in HIV-infected patients with tuberculosis. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (2002) 41:681–690.
  • PATEL A, PATEL K, PATEL Jet al.: To study the safety and antiretroviral efficacy of rifampicin and efavirenz in antiretroviral-naïve tuberculosis co-infected HIV-1 patients in India. Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, USA (2003):138.
  • PEDRAL-SAMAPIO D, ALVES C, NETTO E et al. Efficacy of efavirenz 600 mg dose in the ARV therapy regimen for HIV patients receiving rifampicin in the treatment of tuberculosis. Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, USA (2003):784.
  • CLARKE SM, MULCAHY FM, TJIA J et al.: The pharmacokinetics of methadone in HIV-positive patients receiving the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor efavirenz. Br. J. Gun. PharmacoL (2001) 51:213–217.
  • CLARKE S, MULCAHY F, BACK D et al.: Managing methadone and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: Guidelines for clinical practice. Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2000):88.
  • LERTORAJJ, REGE AB, GREENSPAN DL et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction between zidovudine and valproic acid in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (1994) 56:272–278.
  • KORNHAUSER DM, HENDRIX CW, NERHOOD LJ et al.: Probenecid and zidovudine metabolism. Lancet (1989) 2:473–475.
  • ANTONIOU T, GOUGH K, YOONG D, ARBESS G: Severe anemia secondary to a probable drug interaction between zidovudine and valproic acid. Clin. Infra. Dis. (2004) 38:e38–e40.
  • GlaxoSmithKline, Inc.: Ziagen® (abacavir sulfate tablets and oral solution). GlaxoSmithKline, Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC, USA (2004).
  • MCDOWELL JA, CHITTICK GE, STEVENS CP et al.: Pharmacokinetic interaction of abacavir (1592U89) and ethanol in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults. Anti microb. Agents Chemother. (2000) 44:1686–1690.
  • PILIERO PJ: Pharmacokinetic properties of nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. (2004) 37\(Suppl. 1):52–512. An excellent review - great assessment of intracellular NRTI pharmacoltinetics.
  • FLEISCHER R, BOXWELL D, SHERMAN KE: Nucleoside analogues and mitochondrial toxicity. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2004) 38(8):79–80.
  • Bristol-Myers Squibb: Videx® EC (didanosine delayed-release capsules). Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, NJ, USA (2004).
  • BALZARINI J, LEE CK, HERDEWIJN P, DECLERCQ E: Mechanism of the potentiating effect of ribavirin on the activity of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine against human immunodeficiency virus. J. Biol. Chem. (1991) 266:21509–21514.
  • HODDER SL: Didanosine, interferon-alfa, and ribavirin. AIDS (2004) 18(3):580–581.
  • HENNESSY M, MULCAHY F, SPIERS P et al.: Differential effects of combined pegylated interferon and ribavirin therapy on intracellular nucleotide triphosphate levels in HIV/HCV co-infected patients; a potential mechanism for enhanced toxicity. Proceedings of the 1 Ph Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, USA (2004):822.
  • HOGGARD PG, KEWN S, BARRY MG et al.: Effects of drugs on 2',3'-dideoxy-2';3-didehydrothymidine phosphorylation in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1997) 41:1231–1236.
  • PLACIDI L, CRETTON EM, PLACIDI M, SOMMADOSSI JP: Reduction of3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine to 3'-amino-3'-deoxythymidine in human liver microsomes and its relationship to cytochrome P450. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (1993) 54(2):168–176.
  • HAVLIR DV TIERNEY C, FRIEDLAND GH et al.: In vivo antagonism with zidovudine plus stavudine combination therapy./ Infect Dis. (2000) 182:321–325.
  • JUNG D, GRIFFY K, DORR A et ell.: Effect of high-dose oral ganciclovir on didanosine disposition in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive patients. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1998) 38(11):1057–1062.
  • RAY AS, OLSON L, FRIDLAND A: Role of purine nucleoside phosphorylase in interactions between 2',3'-dideoxyinosine and allopurinol, ganciclovir, or tenofovir. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2004) 48(4):1089–1095.
  • Gilead Sciences, Inc.: Virear (tenofovir). Gilead Sciences, Inc., Foster City, CA, USA (PI 2004).
  • TABURET AM, PIKETTY C, GERARD L et al.: Pharmacokinetic parameters of atazanavir/ritonavir when combined to tenofovir in HIV infected patients with multiple treatment failures: a substudy of Puzzle2-ANRS 107 trial. Proceedings of the .10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, USA (2003):537.
  • KEARNEY BP, MITTAN A, SAYRE J et al.: Pharmacokinetic drug interaction and long term safety profile of tenofovir DF and lopinavir/ritonavir. Proceedings of the 43ra Interscience Conference on Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. Chicago, USA (2003):A–1617.
  • FLAHERTY J, KEARNEY B, WOLF J et al.: A multiple-dose, randomized, crossover, drug interaction study between tenofovir DF and efavirenz, indinavir or lopinavir/ritonavir. Proceedings of the Pt International AIDS Society Conference on HIV Treatment and Pathogenesis. Buenos Aires, Argentina (2001):336.
  • MOORE KHP, YUEN GJ, RAASCH RH et al.: Pharmacokinetics of lamivudine administered alone and with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (1996) 59:550–558.
  • CHATTON JY, MUNAFO A, CHAVE JP et al.: Trimethoprim, alone or in combination with sulphamethoxazole, decreases the renal excretion of zidovudine and its glucuronide. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1992) 34:551–554.
  • MOYLE GJ, DATTA D, MANDALIA S et al.: Hyperlactemia and lactic acidosis during antiretroviral therapy: relevance reproducibility and possible risk factors. AIDS (2002) 16(10):1341–1349.
  • COGHLAN ME, SOMMADOSSI JP, JHALA NC et al.: Symptomatic lactic acidosis in hospitalized antiretroviral-treated patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a report of 12 cases. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2001) 33(11):1914–1921.
  • Abbott Laboratories: Biaxin® (clarithromycin). Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL, USA (2003).
  • OLKKOLA KT, ARANKO K, LUURILA H et al.: A potentially hazardous interaction between erythromycin and midazolam. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (1993) 53:298–305.
  • GRIFFITH D, BROWN B, GIRARD W et al.: Adverse events associated with high-dose rifabutin in macrolide-containing regimens for the treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1995) 21:594–598.
  • NEUVONEN PJ, SUHONEN R: Itraconazole interacts with felodipine. J. Am. Acad. DermatoL (1995) 33:134–135.
  • MAZZU A, LASSETER K, SHAMBLEN E et al.: Itraconazole alters the pharmacokinetics of atorvastatin to a greater extent than either cerivastatin or pravastatin. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (2000) 68(4):391–400.
  • VARTIS T, KAUKONEN KM, KIVISTO KT et al.: Plasma concentrations and effects of oral methylprednisolone are considerably increased by itraconazole. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. (1998) 64:363–368.
  • YASUI N, KONDO T, OTANI K et al: Effect of itraconazole on the single oral dose pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of alprazolam. Psychopharmacology (1998) 139:269–273.
  • DRAYTON J, DICKINSON G, RINALDI MG: Coadministration of rifampin and itraconazole leads to undetectable levels of serum itraconazole. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1994) 18:266.
  • GRANT SM, CLISSOLD SP: Itraconazole. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs (1989) 37:310–344.
  • TUCKER RM, DENNING DW, HANSON LH et al: Interaction of azoles with rifampin, phenytoin, and carbamazepine: in vitro and clinical observations. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1992) 14:165–174.
  • O'REILLY RA, MOTLEY CH: Racemic warfarin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in interaction in humans. Ann. Intern. Med. (1979) 91:34.
  • O'REILLY RA: Stereoselective interaction of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole with the separated enantiomorphs of racemic warfarin in man. N Engl. J. Med. (1980) 302:33–35.
  • LEE BL, MEDINA I, BENOWITZ NL et al: Dapsone, trimethoprim, and sulfamethoxazole plasma levels during treatment of pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): evidence of drug interactions. Ann. Intern. Med. (1989) 110:606–611.
  • LEE BL, SAFRIN S, MAKRIDES V et ed: Zidovudine, trimethoprim and dapsone pharmacokinetic interactions in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:1231–1236.
  • GlaxoSmithKline: Malarone® (atovaquone and proguanil HC1). GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA (2004).
  • LEBEL M, MASSON E, GUILBERT E et al.: Effects of rifabutin and rifampicin on the pharmacokinetics of ethinylestradiol and norethindrone. J. Clin. Pharmacol (1998) 38:1042–1050.
  • JUNG D, GRIFFY K, DORR A et al: Effect of high-dose oral ganciclovir on didanosine disposition in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive patients. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1998) 38:1057–1062.
  • Roche Laboratories, Inc.: Cytovene® (ganciclovir). Roche Laboratories, Inc., Nutley, NJ, USA (2000).
  • HOCHSTER H, DIETERICH D, BOZZETTE S et al.: Toxicity of combined ganciclovir and zidovudine for cytomegalovirus disease associated with AIDS: an AIDS clinical trials group study. Ann. Intern. Med. (1990) 113:111–117.
  • BEHM DILLON DM, PENZAK SR, BAILEY KLEPSER T: The use of herbals by patients with HIV. Adv. Pharm. (2004) 2(1):41–60.
  • PISCITELLI SC, BURSTEIN AH, CHAITT D et al.: Indinavir concentrations and St. John's wort. Lancet (2000) 355:547–548.
  • PISCITELLI SC, BURSTEIN AH, WELDEN N et al.: The effect of garlic supplements on the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2002) 34:234–238.
  • SANDHU R, PRESCILLA R, SIMONELLI TM, EDWARDS DJ: Influence of goldenseal root on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (2003) 43:1283–1288.
  • PISCITELLI SC, FORMENTINI E, BURSTEIN AH et al.: Effect of milk thistle on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir in healthy volunteers. Pharmacotherapy (2002) 22:551–556.
  • DICENZO R, SHELTON M, JORDAN K et al.: Coadministration of milk thistle and indinavir in healthy subjects. Pharmacotherapy (2003) 23:866–870.
  • ANTONIOU T, TSENG AL: Interactions between recreational drugs and antiretroviral agents. Ann. Pharmacother. (2002) 36:1598–1613.
  • ••A great summary - very comprehensive.
  • KRETH K, KOVAR K, SCHWAB M, ZANGER UM: Identification of the human cytochromes P450 involved in the oxidative metabolism of 'Ecstasy'-related designer drugs. Biochem. Pharmacol. (2000) 59(12):1563–1571.
  • DE LA TORRE R, FARRE M, ROSET PN et al.: Human pharmacology of MDMA: Pharmcokinetics, metabolism, and disposition. Ther. Drug Monit. (2004) 26(2):137–144.
  • RAMAMOORTHY Y, YU AM, SUH N, HAINING RL, TYNDALE RF, SELLERS EM: Reduced (+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy') metabolism with cytochrome P450 2D6 inhibitors and pharmacogenetic variants in vitro. Biochem. Pharmacol. (2002) 63(12):2111–2119.
  • HARRINGTON RD, WOODWARD JA, HOOTON TM, HORN JR: Life-threatening interactions between HIV-1 protease inhibitors and the illicit drugs MDMA and y-hydroxybutyrate. Arch. Intern. Med. (1999) 159:2221–2224.
  • HENRY JA, HILL IR: Fatal interaction between ritonavir and MDMA. Lancet (1998) 352:1751–1752.
  • KOSEL BW, AWEEKA FT, BENOWITZ NL et al.: The effects of cannabinoids on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir and nelfinavir. AIDS (2002) 16(4):543–550. Websites

Websites

  • http://AIDSinfo.nih.gov Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection: Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. October 29 (2004). The latest comprehensive guidelines - an excellent resource.
  • http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines US Department of Health and Human Services: 2001 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Rockville, MD: HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service.
  • •Good resource.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.