391
Views
32
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Post-traumatic stress disorder: an evaluation of existing pharmacotherapies and new strategies

, MD PhD & , MD
Pages 1861-1870 | Published online: 14 Aug 2007

Bibliography

  • BRESLAU N, DAVIS GC, ANDRESKI P, PETERSON E: Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (1991) 48(3):216-222.
  • KESSLER RC, BERGLUND P, DEMLER O, JIN R, WALTERS EE: Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (2005) 62(6):593-602.
  • KESSLER RC, SONNEGA A, BROMET E, HUGHES M, NELSON CB: Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (1995) 52(12):1048-1060.
  • SCHLENGER WE, CADDELL JM, EBERT L et al.: Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the National Study of Americans' Reactions to September 11. JAMA (2002) 288(5):581-588.
  • BRESLAU N, KESSLER RC, CHILCOAT HD et al.: Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (1998) 55(7):626-632.
  • KESSLER RC: Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2000) 61(Suppl. 5):4-12; discussion 13-14.
  • MARSHALL RD, OLFSON M, HELLMAN F et al.: Comorbidity, impairment, and suicidality in subthreshold PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry (2001) 158(9):1467-1473.
  • SAREEN J, HOULAHAN T, COX BJ, ASMUNDSON GJ: Anxiety disorders associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in the National Comorbidity Survey. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. (2005) 193(7):450-454.
  • BOSCARINO JA: Diseases among men 20 years after exposure to severe stress: implications for clinical research and medical care. Psychosom. Med. (1997) 59(6):605-614.
  • BALLENGER JC, DAVIDSON JR, LECRUBIER Y et al.: Consensus statement update on posttraumatic stress disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2004) 1:55-62.
  • VAN DER KOLK BA, DREYFUSS D, MICHAELS M et al.: Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder [See comment]. J. Clin. Psychiatry (1994) 55(12):517-522.
  • CONNOR KM, SUTHERLAND SM, TUPLER LA, MALIK ML, DAVIDSON JR: Fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Randomised, double-blind study. Br. J. Psychiatry (1999) 175:17-22.
  • MARTENYI F, BROWN EB, ZHANG H, PRAKASH A, KOKE SC: Fluoxetine versus placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2002) 63(3):199-206.
  • MARTENYI F, BROWN EB, CALDWELL CD: Failed efficacy of fluoxetine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2007) 27(2):166-170.
  • VAN DER KOLK BA, SPINAZZOLA J, BLAUSTEIN ME et al.: A randomized clinical trial of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), fluoxetine, and pill placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: treatment effects and long-term maintenance. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2007) 68(1):37-46.
  • BRADY K, PEARLSTEIN T, ASNIS GM et al.: Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA (2000) 283(14):1837-1844.
  • DAVIDSON JR, ROTHBAUM BO, VAN DER KOLK BA, SIKES CR, FARFEL GM: Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (2001) 58(5):485-492.
  • DAVIDSON JRT, LANDERMAN LR, FARFEL GM, CLARY CM: Characterizing the effects of sertraline in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med. (2002) 32(4):661-670.
  • DAVIDSON J, ROTHBAUM BO, TUCKER P et al.: Venlafaxine extended release in posttraumatic stress disorder: a sertraline- and placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2006) 26(3):259-267.
  • ZOHAR J, AMITAL D, MIODOWNIK C et al.: Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study of sertraline in military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2002) 22(2):190-195.
  • FRIEDMAN MJ, MARMAR CR, BAKER DG, SIKES CR, FARFEL GM: Randomized, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo for posttraumatic stress disorder in a department of veterans affairs setting. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2007) 68(5):711-720.
  • BRADY KT, SONNE S, ANTON RF et al.: Sertraline in the treatment of co-occurring alcohol dependence and posttraumatic stress disorder. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. (2005) 29(3):395-401.
  • TUCKER P, POTTER-KIMBALL R, WYATT DB et al.: Can physiologic assessment and side effects tease out differences in PTSD trials? A double-blind comparison of citalopram, sertraline, and placebo. Psychopharmacol. Bull. (2003) 37(3):135-149.
  • OTTO MW, HINTON D, KORBLY NB et al.: Treatment of pharmacotherapy-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder among Cambodian refugees: a pilot study of combination treatment with cognitive-behavior therapy vs sertraline alone. Behav. Res. Ther. (2003) 41(11):1271-1276.
  • ROTHBAUM BO, CAHILL SP, FOA EB et al.: Augmentation of sertraline with prolonged exposure in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma Stress (2006) 19(5):625-638.
  • MARSHALL RD, BEEBE KL, OLDHAM M, ZANINELLI R: Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment for chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry (2001) 158(12):1982-1988.
  • TUCKER P, ZANINELLI R, YEHUDA R et al.: Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2001) 62(11):860-868.
  • STEIN DJ, DAVIDSON J, SEEDAT S, BEEBE K: Paroxetine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: pooled analysis of placebo-controlled studies. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2003) 4(10):1829-1838.
  • MARSHALL RD, LEWIS-FERNANDEZ R, BLANCO C et al.: A controlled trial of paroxetine for chronic PTSD, dissociation, and interpersonal problems in mostly minority adults. Depress. Anxiety (2007) 24(2):77-84.
  • DAVIDSON J, BALDWIN D, STEIN DJ et al.: Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with venlafaxine extended release: a 6-month randomized controlled trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (2006) 63(10):1158-1165.
  • DAVIDSON JRT, WEISLER RH, BUTTERFIELD MI et al.: Mirtazapine vs. placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot trial. Biol. Psychiatry (2003) 53(2):188-191.
  • DAVIDSON J, KUDLER H, SMITH R et al.: Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (1990) 47(3):259-266.
  • KOSTEN TR, FRANK JB, DAN E, MCDOUGLE CJ, GILLER EL Jr: Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder using phenelzine or imipramine. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. (1991) 179(6):366-370.
  • WALDMEIER PC: Newer aspects of the reversible inhibitor of MAO-A and serotonin reuptake, brofaromine. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry (1993) 17(2):183-198.
  • BAKER DG, DIAMOND BI, GILLETTE G et al.: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multi-center study of brofaromine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) (1995) 122(4):386-389.
  • SOUTHWICK SM, YEHUDA R, GILLER EL, CHARNEY DS: Use of tricyclics and monoamine oxidase inhibitors in the treatment of PTSD: a quantitative review. In: Catecholamine Function in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Emerging Concepts. Murburg MM (Ed.), American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, USA (1994):293-305.
  • DAVIS LL, JEWELL ME, AMBROSE S et al.: A placebo-controlled study of nefazodone for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: a preliminary study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2004) 24(3):291-297.
  • LUCENA MI, CARVAJAL A, ANDRADE RJ, VELASCO A: Antidepressant-induced hepatotoxicity. Expert Opin. Drug Saf. (2003) 2(3):249-262.
  • HERTZBERG MA, MOORE SD, FELDMAN ME, BECKHAM JC: A preliminary study of bupropion sustained-release for smoking cessation in patients with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2001) 21(1):94-98.
  • BECKER ME, HERTZBERG MA, MOORE SD et al.: A placebo-controlled trial of bupropion SR in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2007) 27(2):193-197.
  • LIPPER S, DAVIDSON JR, GRADY TA et al.: Preliminary study of carbamazepine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychosomatics (1986) 27(12):849-854.
  • HERTZBERG MA, BUTTERFIELD MI, FELDMAN ME et al.: A preliminary study of lamotrigine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry (1999) 45(9):1226-1229.
  • CONNOR KM, DAVIDSON JR, WEISLER RH, ZHANG W, ABRAHAM K: Tiagabine for posttraumatic stress disorder: effects of open-label and double-blind discontinuation treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) (2006) 184(1):21-25.
  • DAVIDSON JRT, BRADY KT, MELLMAN TA, STEIN MB, POLLACK MH: The efficacy and tolerability of tiagabine in adult patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2007) 27(1):85-88.
  • TUCKER P, TRAUTMAN RP, WYATT DB et al.: Efficacy and safety of topiramate monotherapy in civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2007) 68(2):201-206.
  • HAMNER MB, FRUEH BC, ULMER HG, ARANA GW: Psychotic features and illness severity in combat veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry (1999) 45(7):846-852.
  • SHIN LM, WRIGHT CI, CANNISTRARO PA et al.: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to overtly presented fearful faces in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (2005) 62(3):273-281.
  • RASMUSSON AM, CHARNEY DS: Animal models of relevance to PTSD. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1997) 821:332-351.
  • HAMNER MB, DEITSCH SE, BRODRICK PS, ULMER HG, LORBERBAUM JP: Quetiapine treatment in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: an open trial of adjunctive therapy. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2003) 23(1):15-20.
  • AHEARN EP, KROHN A, CONNOR KM, DAVIDSON JR: Pharmacologic treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a focus on antipsychotic use. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry (2003) 15(3-4):193-201.
  • KRYSTAL AD, DAVIDSON JR: The use of prazosin for the treatment of trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry (2007) 61(8):925-927.
  • STEIN MB, KLINE NA, MATLOFF JL: Adjunctive olanzapine for SSRI-resistant combat-related PTSD: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry (2002) 159(10):1777-1779.
  • BUTTERFIELD MI, BECKER ME, CONNOR KM et al.: Olanzapine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2001) 16(4):197-203.
  • BARTZOKIS G, LU PH, TURNER J, MINTZ J, SAUNDERS CS: Adjunctive risperidone in the treatment of chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry (2005) 57(5):474-479.
  • HAMNER MB, FALDOWSKI RA, ULMER HG et al.: Adjunctive risperidone treatment in post-traumatic stress disorder: a preliminary controlled trial of effects on comorbid psychotic symptoms. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2003) 18(1):1-8.
  • MONNELLY EP, CIRAULO DA, KNAPP C, KEANE T: Low-dose risperidone as adjunctive therapy for irritable aggression in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2003) 23(2):193-196.
  • REICH DB, WINTERNITZ S, HENNEN J, WATTS T, STANCULESCU C: A preliminary study of risperidone in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse in women. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2004) 65(12):1601-1606.
  • PADALA PR, MADISON J, MONNAHAN M et al.: Risperidone monotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder related to sexual assault and domestic abuse in women. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2006) 21(5):275-280.
  • RASKIND MA, PESKIND ER, KANTER ED et al.: Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry (2003) 160(2):371-373.
  • RASKIND MA, PESKIND ER, HOFF DJ et al.: A parallel group placebo controlled study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry (2007) 61(8):928-934.
  • TAYLOR FB, LOWE K, THOMPSON C et al.: Daytime prazosin reduces psychological distress to trauma specific cues in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry (2006) 59(7):577-581.
  • HORRIGAN JP: Guanfacine for PTSD nightmares. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry (1996) 35(8):975-976.
  • HORRIGAN JP, BARNHILL LJ: The suppression of nightmares with guanfacine. J. Clin. Psychiatry (1996) 57(8):371.
  • HARMON RJ, RIGGS PD: Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry (1996) 35(9):1247-1249.
  • KINZIE JD, SACK RL, RILEY CM: The polysomnographic effects of clonidine on sleep disorders in posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study with Cambodian patients. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. (1994) 182(10):585-587.
  • KINZIE JD, LEUNG P: Clonidine in Cambodian patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. (1989) 177(9):546-550.
  • NEYLAN TC, LENOCI M, SAMUELSON KW et al.: No improvement of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms with guanfacine treatment. Am. J. Psychiatry (2006) 163(12):2186-2188.
  • KAPLAN Z, AMIR M, SWARTZ M, LEVINE J: Inositol treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Anxiety (1996) 2(1):51-52.
  • HERESCO-LEVY U, KREMER I, JAVITT DC et al.: Pilot-controlled trial of D-cycloserine for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. (2002) 5(4):301-307.
  • COHEN H, KAPLAN Z, KOTLER M et al.: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry (2004) 161(3):515-524.
  • AERNI A, TRABER R, HOCK C et al.: Low-dose cortisol for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry (2004) 161(8):1488-1490.
  • PITMAN RK, SANDERS KM, ZUSMAN RM et al.: Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol. Psychiatry (2002) 51(2):189-192.
  • VAIVA G, DUCROCQ F, JEZEQUEL K et al.: Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biol. Psychiatry (2003) 54(9):947-949.
  • ROBERT R, BLAKENEY PE, VILLARREAL C, ROSENBERG L, MEYER WJ III: Imipramine treatment in pediatric burn patients with symptoms of acute stress disorder: a pilot study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry (1999) 38(7):873-882.
  • WEIS F, KILGER E, ROOZENDAAL B et al.: Stress doses of hydrocortisone reduce chronic stress symptoms and improve health-related quality of life in high-risk patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. (2006) 131(2):277-282.
  • SCHELLING G, KILGER E, ROOZENDAAL B et al.: Stress doses of hydrocortisone, traumatic memories, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. Biol. Psychiatry (2004) 55(6):627-633.
  • SCHELLING G, BRIEGEL J, ROOZENDAAL B et al.: The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biol. Psychiatry (2001) 50(12):978-985.
  • GELPIN E, BONNE O, PERI T, BRANDES D, SHALEV AY: Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: a prospective study. J. Clin. Psychiatry (1996) 57(9):390-394.
  • MELLMAN TA, BUSTAMANTE V, DAVID D, FINS AI: Hypnotic medication in the aftermath of trauma. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2002) 63(12):1183-1184.
  • DAVIDSON JR, CONNOR KM, HERTZBERG MA et al.: Maintenance therapy with fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder: a placebo-controlled discontinuation study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. (2005) 25(2):166-169.
  • MARTENYI F, BROWN EB, ZHANG H, KOKE SC, PRAKASH A: Fluoxetine v. placebo in prevention of relapse in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry (2002) 181:315-320.
  • DAVIDSON J, PEARLSTEIN T, LONDBORG P et al.: Efficacy of sertraline in preventing relapse of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a 28-week double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry (2001) 158(12):1974-1981.
  • BRADY KT, CLARY CM: Affective and anxiety comorbidity in post-traumatic stress disorder treatment trials of sertraline. Compr. Psychiatry (2003) 44(5):360-369.
  • BALLENGER JC, DAVIDSON JR, LECRUBIER Y et al.: Consensus statement on social anxiety disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry (1998) 59(Suppl. 17):54-60.
  • DAVIDSON JR: Pharmacologic treatment of acute and chronic stress following trauma: 2006. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2006) 67(Suppl. 2):34-39.
  • MASAND PS: Tolerability and adherence issues in antidepressant therapy. Clin. Ther. (2003) 25(8):2289-2304.
  • SHEMESH E, STUBER ML: Posttraumatic stress disorder in medically ill patients: what is known, what needs to be determined, and why is it important? CNS Spectr. (2006) 11(2):106-117.
  • MELLMAN TA, CLARK RE, PEACOCK WJ: Prescribing patterns for patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr. Serv. (2003) 54(12):1618-1621.
  • NEMEROFF CB, HEIM CM, THASE ME et al.: Differential responses to psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy in patients with chronic forms of major depression and childhood trauma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2003) 100(24):14293-14296.
  • HAGEMAN I, ANDERSEN HS, JORGENSEN MB: Post-traumatic stress disorder: a review of psychobiology and pharmacotherapy. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. (2001) 104(6):411-422.
  • YEHUDA R, YANG RK, GOLIER JA et al.: Effect of sertraline on glucocorticoid sensitivity of mononuclear leukocytes in post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology (2006) 31(1):189-196.
  • NEMEROFF CB: Neurobiological consequences of childhood trauma. J. Clin. Psychiatry (2004) 65(Suppl. 1):18-28.
  • FRIEDMAN MJ: What might the psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder teach us about future approaches to pharmacotherapy? J. Clin. Psychiatry (2000) 7:44-51.
  • GORWOOD P: Meeting everyday challenges: antipsychotic therapy in the real world. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. (2006) 16(Suppl. 3):S156-S162.
  • FAVA M, RUSH AJ, TRIVEDI MH et al.: Background and rationale for the sequenced treatment alternatives to relieve depression (STAR*D) study. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. (2003) 26(2):457-494, x.
  • BRYANT RA: Psychosocial approaches of acute stress reactions. CNS Spectr. (2005) 10(2):116-122.

Websites

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.