268
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Parkinson's disease: emerging pharmacotherapy

&
Pages 573-591 | Published online: 20 Nov 2008

Bibliography

  • de Lau LM, Breteler MM. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2006;5(6):525-35
  • Sian J, Gerlach M, Youdim MB, Riederer P. Parkinson's disease: a major hypokinetic basal ganglia disorder. J Neural Transm 1999;106(5-6):443-76
  • Braak H, Del Tredici K. Invited Article: Nervous system pathology in sporadic Parkinson disease. Neurology 2008;70(20):1916-25
  • Kovacs GG, Kloppel S, Fischer I, et al. Nucleus-specific alteration of raphe neurons in human neurodegenerative disorders. Neuroreport 2003;14(1):73-6
  • Zarow C, Lyness SA, Mortimer JA, Chui HC. Neuronal loss is greater in the locus coeruleus than nucleus basalis and substantia nigra in Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. Arch Neurol 2003;60(3):337-41
  • Rascol O, Payoux P, Ory F, et al. Limitations of current Parkinson's disease therapy. Ann Neurol 2003;53(Suppl 3):S3-12; discussion S-5
  • Jankovic J. Parkinson's disease: clinical features and diagnosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79(4):368-76
  • Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, Lees AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992;55(3):181-4
  • Litvan I, Bhatia KP, Burn DJ, et al. Movement Disorders Society Scientific Issues Committee report: SIC Task Force appraisal of clinical diagnostic criteria for Parkinsonian disorders. Mov Disord 2003;18(5):467-86
  • Poewe W. Non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2008;15(Suppl 1):14-20
  • Santamaria J, Tolosa E, Valles A. Parkinson's disease with depression: a possible subgroup of idiopathic parkinsonism. Neurology 1986;36(8):1130-3
  • Stiasny-Kolster K, Doerr Y, Moller JC, et al. Combination of ‘idiopathic’ REM sleep behaviour disorder and olfactory dysfunction as possible indicator for alpha-synucleinopathy demonstrated by dopamine transporter FP-CIT-SPECT. Brain 2005;128(Pt 1):126-37
  • Ponsen MM, Stoffers D, Booij J, et al. Idiopathic hyposmia as a preclinical sign of Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2004;56(2):173-81
  • Hely MA, Morris JG, Reid WG, Trafficante R. Sydney Multicenter Study of Parkinson's disease: non-L-dopa-responsive problems dominate at 15 years. Mov Disord 2005;20(2):190-9
  • The Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS): status and recommendations. Mov Disord 2003;18(7):738-50
  • Greenamyre JT, Betarbet R, Sherer TB. The rotenone model of Parkinson's disease: genes, environment and mitochondria. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2003;9(Suppl 2):S59-64
  • Shults CW, Haas RH, Passov D, Beal MF. Coenzyme Q10 levels correlate with the activities of complexes I and II/III in mitochondria from parkinsonian and nonparkinsonian subjects. Ann Neurol 1997;42(2):261-4
  • Dexter DT, Wells FR, Lees AJ, et al. Increased nigral iron content and alterations in other metal ions occurring in brain in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1989;52(6):1830-6
  • Schapira AH, Cooper JM, Dexter D, et al. Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1990;54(3):823-7
  • Riederer P, Sofic E, Rausch WD, et al. Transition metals, ferritin, glutathione, and ascorbic acid in parkinsonian brains. J Neurochem 1989;52(2):515-20
  • Holtz WA, O'Malley KL. Parkinsonian mimetics induce aspects of unfolded protein response in death of dopaminergic neurons. J Biol Chem 2003;278(21):19367-77
  • Imai Y, Soda M, Inoue H, et al. An unfolded putative transmembrane polypeptide, which can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress, is a substrate of Parkin. Cell 2001;105(7):891-902
  • Pan T, Kondo S, Le W, Jankovic J. The role of autophagy-lysosome pathway in neurodegeneration associated with Parkinson's disease. Brain 2008;131(Pt 8):1969-78
  • Brice A. Genetics of Parkinson's disease: LRRK2 on the rise. Brain 2005;128(Pt 12):2760-2
  • Kitada T, Asakawa S, Hattori N, et al. Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Nature 1998;392(6676):605-8
  • Valente EM, Abou-Sleiman PM, Caputo V, et al. Hereditary early-onset Parkinson's disease caused by mutations in PINK1. Science 2004;304(5674):1158-60
  • Takahashi H, Wakabayashi K. The cellular pathology of Parkinson's disease. Neuropathology 2001;21(4):315-22
  • Farrer M, Chan P, Chen R, et al. Lewy bodies and parkinsonism in families with parkin mutations. Ann Neurol 2001;50(3):293-300
  • Jellinger KA. Lewy body-related alpha-synucleinopathy in the aged human brain. J Neural Transm 2004;111(10-11):1219-35
  • Schapira AH. Progress in neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2008;15(Suppl 1):5-13
  • Olanow CW, Rascol O. Early Rasagiline Treatment Slows UPDRS decline in the ADAGIO delayed start study. ANA annual meeting; 2008. 133rd Annual Meeting of the American Neurological Association (ANA), 23rd September 2008
  • da Silva-Junior FP, Braga-Neto P, Sueli Monte F, de Bruin VM. Amantadine reduces the duration of levodopa-induced dyskinesia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005;11(7):449-52
  • Palhagen SE, Carlsson M, Curman E, et al. Depressive illness in Parkinson's disease - indication of a more advanced and widespread neurodegenerative process? Acta Neurol Scand 2008;117(5):295-304
  • Emre M, Aarsland D, Albanese A, et al. Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 2004;351(24):2509-18
  • Ondo WG, Tintner R, Voung KD, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, unforced titration parallel trial of quetiapine for dopaminergic-induced hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2005;20(8):958-63
  • Clarke CE, Guttman M. Dopamine agonist monotherapy in Parkinson's disease. Lancet 2002;360(9347):1767-9
  • Subramony JA. Apomorphine in dopaminergic therapy. Mol Pharm 2006;3(4):380-5
  • Deane KH, Spieker S, Clarke CE. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors for levodopa-induced complications in Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;4:CD004554
  • Muller T, Kuhn W, Przuntek H. Efficacy of budipine and placebo in untreated patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm 2005;112(8):1015-23
  • Olanow CW, Agid Y, Mizuno Y, et al. Levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: current controversies. Mov Disord 2004;19(9):997-1005
  • Whone AL, Watts RL, Stoessl AJ, et al. Slower progression of Parkinson's disease with ropinirole versus levodopa: The REAL-PET study. Ann Neurol 2003;54(1):93-101
  • Dopamine transporter brain imaging to assess the effects of pramipexole vs levodopa on Parkinson disease progression. JAMA 2002;287(13):1653-61
  • Mytilineou C, Han SK, Cohen G. Toxic and protective effects of L-dopa on mesencephalic cell cultures. J Neurochem 1993;61(4):1470-8
  • Hauser RA, Rascol O, Korczyn AD, et al. Ten-year follow-up of Parkinson's disease patients randomized to initial therapy with ropinirole or levodopa. Mov Disord 2007;22(16):2409-17
  • Katzenschlager R, Head J, Schrag A, et al. Fourteen-year final report of the randomized PDRG-UK trial comparing three initial treatments in PD. Neurology 2008;71(7):474-80
  • Fahn S, Oakes D, Shoulson I, et al. Levodopa and the progression of Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 2004;351(24):2498-508
  • Stowe RL, Ives NJ, Clarke C, et al. Dopamine agonist therapy in early Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;2:CD006564
  • Inzelberg R, Schechtman E, Nisipeanu P. Cabergoline, pramipexole and ropinirole used as monotherapy in early Parkinson's disease: an evidence-based comparison. Drugs Aging 2003;20(11):847-55
  • Nyholm D, Constantinescu R, Holmberg B, et al. Comparison of apomorphine and levodopa infusions in four patients with Parkinson's disease with symptom fluctuations. Acta Neurol Scand 2008 Sep 24. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Antonini A. Continuous dopaminergic stimulation: from theory to clinical practice. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007;13(Suppl):S24-8
  • van Laar T, Jansen EN, Essink AW, et al. A double-blind study of the efficacy of apomorphine and its assessment in ‘off’-periods in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1993;95(3):231-5
  • Corsini GU, Del Zompo M, Gessa GL, Mangoni A. Therapeutic efficacy of apomorphine combined with an extracerebral inhibitor of dopamine receptors in Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1979;1(8123):954-6
  • Manson AJ, Turner K, Lees AJ. Apomorphine monotherapy in the treatment of refractory motor complications of Parkinson's disease: long-term follow-up study of 64 patients. Mov Disord 2002;17(6):1235-41
  • Pietz K, Hagell P, Odin P. Subcutaneous apomorphine in late stage Parkinson's disease: a long term follow up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;65(5):709-16
  • Kaakkola S. Clinical pharmacology, therapeutic use and potential of COMT inhibitors in Parkinson's disease. Drugs 2000;59(6):1233-50
  • Keating GM, Lyseng-Williamson KA. Tolcapone: a review of its use in the management of Parkinson's disease. CNS Drugs 2005;19(2):165-84
  • Entacapone to tolcapone switch: Multicenter double-blind, randomized, active-controlled trial in advanced Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2007;22(1):14-9
  • Thebault JJ, Guillaume M, Levy R. Tolerability, safety, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of rasagiline: a potent, selective, and irreversible monoamine oxidase type B inhibitor. Pharmacotherapy 2004;24(10):1295-305
  • Youdim MB, Gross A, Finberg JP. Rasagiline [N-propargyl-1R(+)-aminoindan], a selective and potent inhibitor of mitochondrial monoamine oxidase B. Br J Pharmacol 2001;132(2):500-6
  • Impact of deprenyl and tocopherol treatment on Parkinson's disease in DATATOP patients requiring levodopa. Parkinson Study Group. Ann Neurol 1996;39(1):37-45
  • Olanow CW, Hauser RA, Gauger L, et al. The effect of deprenyl and levodopa on the progression of Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1995;38(5):771-7
  • Goetz CG, Poewe W, Rascol O, Sampaio C. Evidence-based medical review update: pharmacological and surgical treatments of Parkinson's disease: 2001 to 2004. Mov Disord 2005;20(5):523-39
  • Waters CH, Sethi KD, Hauser RA, et al. Zydis selegiline reduces off time in Parkinson's disease patients with motor fluctuations: a 3-month, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord 2004;19(4):426-32
  • Finberg JP, Youdim MB. Pharmacological properties of the anti-Parkinson drug rasagiline; modification of endogenous brain amines, reserpine reversal, serotonergic and dopaminergic behaviours. Neuropharmacology 2002;43(7):1110-8
  • Fernandez HH, Chen JJ. Monamine oxidase inhibitors: current and emerging agents for Parkinson disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007;30(3):150-68
  • A randomized placebo-controlled trial of rasagiline in levodopa-treated patients with Parkinson disease and motor fluctuations: the PRESTO study. Arch Neurol 2005;62(2):241-8
  • Rascol O, Brooks DJ, Melamed E, et al. Rasagiline as an adjunct to levodopa in patients with Parkinson's disease and motor fluctuations (LARGO, Lasting effect in Adjunct therapy with Rasagiline Given Once daily, study): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group trial. Lancet 2005;365(9463):947-54
  • Marks WJ Jr, Ostrem JL, Verhagen L, et al. Safety and tolerability of intraputaminal delivery of CERE-120 (adeno-associated virus serotype 2-neurturin) to patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease: an open-label, Phase I trial. Lancet Neurol 2008;7(5):400-8
  • Hodaie M, Neimat JS, Lozano AM. The dopaminergic nigrostriatal system and Parkinson's disease: molecular events in development, disease, and cell death, and new therapeutic strategies. Neurosurgery 2007;60(1):17-28; discussion 30
  • Jenner P. Molecular mechanisms of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9(9):665-77
  • Yang M, Soohoo D, Soelaiman S, et al. Characterization of the potency, selectivity, and pharmacokinetic profile for six adenosine A2A receptor antagonists. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2007;375(2):133-44
  • Castagnoli N Jr, Petzer JP, Steyn S, et al. Monoamine oxidase B inhibition and neuroprotection: studies on selective adenosine A2A receptor antagonists. Neurology 2003;61(11 Suppl 6):S62-8
  • Bara-Jimenez W, Sherzai A, Dimitrova T, et al. Adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonist treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2003;61(3):293-6
  • LeWitt PA, Guttman M, Tetrud JW, et al. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonist istradefylline (KW-6002) reduces ‘off’ time in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, multicenter clinical trial (6002-US-005). Ann Neurol 2008;63(3):295-302
  • Stacy M, Silver D, Mendis T, et al. A 12-week, placebo-controlled study (6002-US-006) of istradefylline in Parkinson disease. Neurology 2008;70(23):2233-40
  • Lyons KE, Pahwa R. Efficacy and tolerability of levetiracetam in Parkinson disease patients with levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Clin Neuropharmacol 2006;29(3):148-53
  • Murata M. Novel therapeutic effects of the anti-convulsant, zonisamide, on Parkinson's disease. Curr Pharm Des 2004;10(6):687-93
  • Zesiewicz TA, Sullivan KL, Maldonado JL, et al. Open-label pilot study of levetiracetam (Keppra) for the treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2005;20(9):1205-9
  • Murata M, Hasegawa K, Kanazawa I. Zonisamide improves motor function in Parkinson disease: a randomized, double-blind study. Neurology 2007;68(1):45-50
  • Konitsiotis S, Blanchet PJ, Verhagen L, et al. AMPA receptor blockade improves levodopa-induced dyskinesia in MPTP monkeys. Neurology 2000;54(8):1589-95
  • Klockgether T, Turski L, Honore T, et al. The AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX has antiparkinsonian effects in monoamine-depleted rats and MPTP-treated monkeys. Ann Neurol 1991;30(5):717-23
  • Luquin MR, Obeso JA, Laguna J, et al. The AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX does not alter the motor response induced by selective dopamine agonists in MPTP-treated monkeys. Eur J Pharmacol 1993;235(2-3):297-300
  • Elting JW, Sulter GA, Kaste M, et al. AMPA antagonist ZK200775 in patients with acute ischemic stroke: possible glial cell toxicity detected by monitoring of S-100B serum levels. Stroke 2002;33(12):2813-8
  • Nutt JG, Gunzler SA, Kirchhoff T, et al. Effects of a NR2B selective NMDA glutamate antagonist, CP-101,606, on dyskinesia and parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2008
  • Wessell RH, Ahmed SM, Menniti FS, et al. NR2B selective NMDA receptor antagonist CP-101,606 prevents levodopa-induced motor response alterations in hemi-parkinsonian rats. Neuropharmacology 2004;47(2):184-94
  • Nash JE, Ravenscroft P, McGuire S, et al. The NR2B-selective NMDA receptor antagonist CP-101,606 exacerbates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia and provides mild potentiation of anti-parkinsonian effects of L-DOPA in the MPTP-lesioned marmoset model of Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2004;188(2):471-9
  • Lees KR. Cerestat and other NMDA antagonists in ischemic stroke. Neurology 1997;49(5 Suppl 4):S66-9
  • Glennon JC, Van Scharrenburg G, Ronken E, et al. In vitro characterization of SLV308 (7-[4-methyl-1-piperazinyl]-2(3H)-benzoxazolone, monohydrochloride): a novel partial dopamine D2 and D3 receptor agonist and serotonin 5-HT1A receptor agonist. Synapse 2006;60(8):599-608
  • Jenner P. Pharmacology of dopamine agonists in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2002;58(4 Suppl 1):S1-8
  • Bibbiani F, Oh JD, Chase TN. Serotonin 5-HT1A agonist improves motor complications in rodent and primate parkinsonian models. Neurology 2001;57(10):1829-34
  • Pot C, Oppliger R, Castillo V, et al. Apomorphine-induced eosinophilic panniculitis and hypereosinophilia in Parkinson disease. Neurology 2005;64(2):392-3
  • Esteban Munoz J, Marti MJ, Marin C, Tolosa E. Long-term treatment with intermitent intranasal or subcutaneous apormorphine in patients with levodopa-related motor fluctuations. Clin Neuropharmacol 1997;20(3):245-52
  • Dewey RB, Jr, Maraganore DM, Ahlskog JE, Matsumoto JY. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of intranasal apomorphine spray as a rescue agent for off-states in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1998;13(5):782-7
  • Sam E, Jeanjean AP, Maloteaux JM, Verbeke N. Apomorphine pharmacokinetics in parkinsonism after intranasal and subcutaneous application. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 1995;20(1):27-33
  • Neef C, Van Laar T. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships of apomorphine in patients with Parkinson's disease. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999;37(3):257-71
  • Stocchi F, Arnold G, Onofrj M, et al. Improvement of motor function in early Parkinson disease by safinamide. Neurology 2004;63(4):746-8
  • Caccia C, Maj R, Calabresi M, et al. Safinamide: from molecular targets to a new anti-Parkinson drug. Neurology 2006;67(7 Suppl 2):S18-23
  • Pollak P, Tison F, Rascol O, et al. Clozapine in drug induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease: a randomised, placebo controlled study with open follow up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75(5):689-95
  • Friedman JH, Lannon MC. Clozapine-responsive tremor in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1990;5(3):225-9
  • Vanover KE, Weiner DM, Makhay M, et al. Pharmacological and behavioral profile of N-(4-fluorophenylmethyl)-N-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-N′-(4-(2-methylpropylo xy)phenylmethyl) carbamide (2R,3R)-dihydroxybutanedioate (2:1) (ACP-103), a novel 5-hydroxytryptamine(2A) receptor inverse agonist. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006;3172:910-8
  • Vanover KE, Betz AJ, Weber SM, et al. A 5-HT(2A) receptor inverse agonist, ACP-103, reduces tremor in a rat model and levodopa-induced dyskinesias in a monkey model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008;90(4):540-4
  • Gomez-Mancilla B, Bedard PJ. Effect of nondopaminergic drugs on L-dopa-induced dyskinesias in MPTP-treated monkeys. Clin Neuropharmacol 1993;16(5):418-27
  • Rascol O, Arnulf I, Peyro-Saint Paul H, et al. Idazoxan, an alpha-2 antagonist, and L-DOPA-induced dyskinesias in patients with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2001;16(4):708-13
  • Savola JM, Hill M, Engstrom M, et al. Fipamezole (JP-1730) is a potent alpha2 adrenergic receptor antagonist that reduces levodopa-induced dyskinesia in the MPTP-lesioned primate model of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2003;18(8):872-83
  • Meco G, Fabrizio E, Di Rezze S, et al. Mirtazapine in L-dopa-induced dyskinesias. Clin Neuropharmacol 2003;26(4):179-81
  • Garcia-Ladona FJ, Cox BF. BP 897, a selective dopamine D3 receptor ligand with therapeutic potential for the treatment of cocaine-addiction. CNS Drug Rev 2003;9(2):141-58
  • Visanji NP, Millan MJ, Brotchie JM. Actions at sites other than D3; receptors mediate the effects of BP897 on l-DOPA-induced hyperactivity in monoamine-depleted rats. Exp Neurol 2006;202(1):85-92
  • Pollak L, Dobronevsky Y, Prohorov T, et al. Low dose methylphenidate improves freezing in advanced Parkinson's disease during off-state. J Neural Transm Suppl 2007;72:145-8
  • Devos D, Krystkowiak P, Clement F, et al. Improvement of gait by chronic, high doses of methylphenidate in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007;78(5):470-5
  • A randomized clinical trial of coenzyme Q10 and GPI-1485 in early Parkinson disease. Neurology 2007;68(1):20-8
  • Surmeier DJ. Calcium, ageing, and neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2007;6(10):933-8
  • Devos D, Dujardin K, Poirot I, et al. Comparison of desipramine and citalopram treatments for depression in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord 2008;23(6):850-7
  • Harada CN, Shega JW, Sachs GA. Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 2005;352(13):1387; author reply
  • Bakchine S, Loft H. Memantine treatment in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: results of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled 6-month study. J Alzheimers Dis 2008;13(1):97-107
  • Merello M, Nouzeilles MI, Cammarota A, Leiguarda R. Effect of memantine (NMDA antagonist) on Parkinson's disease: a double-blind crossover randomized study. Clin Neuropharmacol 1999;22(5):273-6
  • Ondo WG, Fayle R, Atassi F, Jankovic J. Modafinil for daytime somnolence in Parkinson's disease: double blind, placebo controlled parallel trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76(12):1636-9
  • Medeiros CA, Carvalhedo De Bruin PF, Lopes LA, et al. Effect of exogenous melatonin on sleep and motor dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled study. J Neurol 2007;254(4):459-64
  • Zammit G, Erman M, Wang-Weigand S, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of ramelteon in subjects with chronic insomnia. J Clin Sleep Med 2007;3(5):495-504
  • Mathias CJ. L-dihydroxyphenylserine (Droxidopa) in the treatment of orthostatic hypotension: the European experience. Clin Auton Res 2008;18(Suppl 1):25-9
  • Schrag A, Ben-Shlomo Y, Quinn N. How common are complications of Parkinson's disease? J Neurol 2002;249(4):419-23
  • Hauser RA, Mc Dermott MP, Messing S. Factors associated with the development of motor fluctuations and dyskinesias in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2006;63(12):1756-60
  • Chapuis S, Ouchchane L, Metz O, et al. Impact of the motor complications of Parkinson's disease on the quality of life. Mov Disord 2005;20(2):224-30
  • Riederer P, Gille G, Muller T, et al. Practical importance of neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol 2002;249(Suppl 3):III/53-6
  • Bonnet AM, Loria Y, Saint-Hilaire MH, et al. Does long-term aggravation of Parkinson's disease result from nondopaminergic lesions? Neurology 1987;37(9):1539-42
  • Hagenah J, Klein C, Sieberer M, Vieregge P. Exogenous levodopa is not toxic to elderly subjects with non-parkinsonian movement disorders: further clinical evidence. J Neural Transm 1999;106(3-4):301-7
  • Boyce S, Rupniak NM, Steventon MJ, Iversen SD. Nigrostriatal damage is required for induction of dyskinesias by L-DOPA in squirrel monkeys. Clin Neuropharmacol 1990;13(5):448-58
  • Sanchez-Ramos JR, Ortoll R, Paulson GW. Visual hallucinations associated with Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 1996;53(12):1265-8
  • Factor SA, Feustel PJ, Friedman JH, et al. Longitudinal outcome of Parkinson's disease patients with psychosis. Neurology 2003;60(11):1756-61
  • Apaydin H, Ahlskog JE, Parisi JE, et al. Parkinson disease neuropathology: later-developing dementia and loss of the levodopa response. Arch Neurol 2002;59(1):102-12
  • Mori S. Responses to donepezil in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002;977:493-500
  • Asahina M, Suhara T, Shinotoh H, et al. Brain muscarinic receptors in progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson's disease: A Positron Emission Tomographic study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;65(2):155-63
  • Aubert I, Araujo DM, Cecyre D, et al. Comparative alterations of nicotinic and muscarinic binding sites in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. J Neurochem 1992;58(2):529-41
  • Nakano I, Hirano A. Parkinson's disease: neuron loss in the nucleus basalis without concomitant Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1984;15(5):415-8
  • Perry EK, Curtis M, Dick DJ, et al. Cholinergic correlates of cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease: comparisons with Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985;48(5):413-21
  • Werber EA, Rabey JM. The beneficial effect of cholinesterase inhibitors on patients suffering from Parkinson's disease and dementia. J Neural Transm 2001;108(11):1319-25
  • Burn D, Emre M, Mc Keith I, et al. Effects of rivastigmine in patients with and without visual hallucinations in dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2006;21(11):1899-907
  • Quik M, Cox H, Parameswaran N, et al. Nicotine reduces levodopa-induced dyskinesias in lesioned monkeys. Ann Neurol 2007;62(6):588-96
  • Bordia T, Campos C, Huang L, Quik M. Continuous and intermittent nicotine treatment reduces L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesias in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008;327(1):239-47
  • Villafane G, Cesaro P, Rialland A, et al. Chronic high dose transdermal nicotine in Parkinson's disease: an open trial. Eur J Neurol 2007;14(12):1313-6
  • Voulalas PJ, Holtzclaw L, Wolstenholme J, et al. Metabotropic glutamate receptors and dopamine receptors cooperate to enhance extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation in striatal neurons. J Neurosci 2005;25(15):3763-73
  • Loftis JM, Janowsky A. The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit NR2B: localization, functional properties, regulation, and clinical implications. Pharmacol Ther 2003;97(1):55-85
  • Picconi B, Centonze D, Hakansson K, et al. Loss of bidirectional striatal synaptic plasticity in L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Nat Neurosci 2003;6(5):501-6
  • Hurley MJ, Jackson MJ, Smith LA, et al. Immunoautoradiographic analysis of NMDA receptor subunits and associated postsynaptic density proteins in the brain of dyskinetic MPTP-treated common marmosets. Eur J Neurosci 2005;21(12):3240-50
  • Dunah AW, Wang Y, Yasuda RP, et al. Alterations in subunit expression, composition, and phosphorylation of striatal N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptors in a rat 6-hydroxydopamine model of Parkinson's disease. Mol Pharmacol 2000;57(2):342-52
  • Calon F, Rajput AH, Hornykiewicz O, et al. Levodopa-induced motor complications are associated with alterations of glutamate receptors in Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2003;14(3):404-16
  • Bernard V, Somogyi P, Bolam JP. Cellular, subcellular, and subsynaptic distribution of AMPA-type glutamate receptor subunits in the neostriatum of the rat. J Neurosci 1997;17(2):819-33
  • Marin C, Jimenez A, Bonastre M, et al. LY293558, an AMPA glutamate receptor antagonist, prevents and reverses levodopa-induced motor alterations in Parkinsonian rats. Synapse 2001;42(1):40-7
  • Lynch G, Baudry M. The biochemistry of memory: a new and specific hypothesis. Science 1984;224(4653):1057-63
  • Malenka RC, Nicoll RA. Long-term potentiation: a decade of progress? Science 1999;285(5435):1870-4
  • Baumbarger P, Muhlhauser M, Yang CR, Nisenbaum ES. LY392098, a novel AMPA receptor potentiator: electrophysiological studies in prefrontal cortical neurons. Neuropharmacology 2001;40(8):992-1002
  • Murray TK, Whalley K, Robinson CS, et al. LY503430, a novel alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptor potentiator with functional, neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects in rodent models of Parkinson's disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003;306(2):752-62
  • Kish SJ, Tong J, Hornykiewicz O, et al. Preferential loss of serotonin markers in caudate versus putamen in Parkinson's disease. Brain 2008;131(Pt 1):120-31
  • De Deurwaerdere P, Navailles S, Berg KA, et al. Constitutive activity of the serotonin2C receptor inhibits in vivo dopamine release in the rat striatum and nucleus accumbens. J Neurosci 2004;24(13):3235-41
  • Di Matteo V, Cacchio M, Di Giulio C, Esposito E. Role of serotonin(2C) receptors in the control of brain dopaminergic function. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002;71(4):727-34
  • Benloucif S, Galloway MP. Facilitation of dopamine release in vivo by serotonin agonists: studies with microdialysis. Eur J Pharmacol 1991;200(1):1-8
  • Lucas G, De Deurwaerdere P, Caccia S, Umberto S. The effect of serotonergic agents on haloperidol-induced striatal dopamine release in vivo: opposite role of 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(2C) receptor subtypes and significance of the haloperidol dose used. Neuropharmacology 2000;39(6):1053-63
  • Mayeux R. The ‘serotonin hypothesis’ for depression in Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol 1990;53:163-6
  • Goetz CG, Damier P, Hicking C, et al. Sarizotan as a treatment for dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Mov Disord 2007;22(2):179-86
  • Iravani MM, Tayarani-Binazir K, Chu WB, et al. In 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-treated primates, the selective 5-hydroxytryptamine 1a agonist (R)-(+)-8-OHDPAT inhibits levodopa-induced dyskinesia but only with increased motor disability. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006;319(3):1225-34
  • Caretti V, Stoffers D, Winogrodzka A, et al. Loss of thalamic serotonin transporters in early drug-naive Parkinson's disease patients is associated with tremor: an [123;I]beta-CIT SPECT study. J Neural Transm 2008;115(5):721-9
  • Herkenham M, Lynn AB, Little MD, et al. Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87(5):1932-6
  • Devane WA, Hanus L, Breuer A, et al. Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science 1992;258(5090):1946-9
  • Di Marzo V, Melck D, Bisogno T, De Petrocellis L. Endocannabinoids: endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands with neuromodulatory action. Trends Neurosci 1998;21(12):521-8
  • Meschler JP, Howlett AC. Signal transduction interactions between CB1 cannabinoid and dopamine receptors in the rat and monkey striatum. Neuropharmacology 2001;40(7):918-26
  • Kreitzer AC, Malenka RC. Endocannabinoid-mediated rescue of striatal LTD and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease models. Nature 2007;445(7128):643-7
  • Borgkvist A, Marcellino D, Fuxe K, et al. Regulation of DARPP-32 phosphorylation by Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Neuropharmacology 2008;54(1):31-5
  • Greengard P, Allen PB, Nairn AC. Beyond the dopamine receptor: the DARPP-32/protein phosphatase-1 cascade. Neuron 1999;23(3):435-47
  • Carroll CB, Bain PG, Teare L, et al. Cannabis for dyskinesia in Parkinson disease: a randomized double-blind crossover study. Neurology 2004;63(7):1245-50
  • Hancock DB, Martin ER, Stajich JM, et al. Smoking, caffeine, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in families with Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2007;64(4):576-80
  • Kalda A, Yu L, Oztas E, Chen JF. Novel neuroprotection by caffeine and adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists in animal models of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 2006;248(1-2):9-15
  • Schiffmann SN, Jacobs O, Vanderhaeghen JJ. Striatal restricted adenosine A2 receptor (RDC8) is expressed by enkephalin but not by substance P neurons: an in situ hybridization histochemistry study. J Neurochem 1991;57(3):1062-7
  • Aoyama S, Kase H, Borrelli E. Rescue of locomotor impairment in dopamine D2 receptor-deficient mice by an adenosine A2A receptor antagonist. J Neurosci 2000;20(15):5848-52
  • Bing G, Zhang Y, Watanabe Y, et al. Locus coeruleus lesions potentiate neurotoxic effects of MPTP in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. Brain Res 1994;668(1-2):261-5
  • Mavridis M, Degryse AD, Lategan AJ, et al. Effects of locus coeruleus lesions on parkinsonian signs, striatal dopamine and substantia nigra cell loss after 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine in monkeys: a possible role for the locus coeruleus in the progression of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 1991;41(2-3):507-23
  • Fulceri F, Biagioni F, Ferrucci M, et al. Abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) following pulsatile dopaminergic stimulation: severe deterioration and morphological correlates following the loss of locus coeruleus neurons. Brain Res 2007;1135(1):219-29
  • Pintor L, Bailles E, Valldeoriola F, et al. Response to 4-month treatment with reboxetine in Parkinson's disease patients with a major depressive episode. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2006;28(1):59-64
  • Semba K, Fibiger HC, Vincent SR. Neurotransmitters in the mammalian striatum: neuronal circuits and heterogeneity. Can J Neurol Sci 1987;14(3 Suppl):386-94
  • Chen H, Jacobs E, Schwarzschild MA, et al. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug use and the risk for Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2005;58(6):963-7
  • Blum-Degen D, Muller T, Kuhn W, et al. Interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-6 are elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's and de novo Parkinson's disease patients. Neurosci Lett 1995;202(1-2):17-20
  • Imamura K, Hishikawa N, Sawada M, et al. Distribution of major histocompatibility complex class II-positive microglia and cytokine profile of Parkinson's disease brains. Acta Neuropathol 2003;106(6):518-26

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.