Emerging strategies for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease at the Millennium

Bibliography

• HARDY J: Amyloid, the presenilins and Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci. (1997) 20:154–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SELKOE DJ: Amyloid 0-protein and the genetics of Alzheimer's disease. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:18295–18298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Explains the basics of the amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease.
   Google Scholar
• IQBAL K, GRUNDKE-IQBAL I: Molecular mechanism of Alzheimer's neurofibrillary degeneration and therapeutic intervention. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1996) 777:132–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BERG L, MCKEEL DWJ, MILLER JP, et al.: Clinicopathologic studies in cognitively healthy ageing and Alzheimer's disease: relation of histologic markers to dementia severity, age, sex, and apolipoprotein E genotype. Arch. Neurol. (1998) 55:326–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRAAK H, BRAAK E: Frequency of stages of Alzheimer-related lesions in different age categories. Neurobiol. Ageing (1997) 18:351–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Provides extensive morphological evidence that incipient AD pathology can begin to appearin brain around the third decade of life.
   Google Scholar
• SELKOE DJ: Alzheimer's disease: genotypes, phenotypes, and treatments. Science (1997) 275:630–631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOLCOMB L, GORDON MN, MCGOWAN E, et al.: Accelerated Alzheimer-type phenotype in transgenic mice carrying both mutant amyloid precursor protein and presenilin 1 transgenes. Nature Med. (1998) 4:97–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Shows that the development of the APP overexpressing phenotype can be accelerated by a mutated presenilin which has no effect on its own.
   Google Scholar
• HONG M, ZHUKAREVA V, VOGELSBERG-RAGAGLIA V, et al.: Mutation-specificfunctional impairments in distinct tau isoforms of hereditary FTDP-17. Science (1998) 282:1914–1917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLARK LN, POORKAJ P, WSZOLEK Z, et al.: Pathogenic implications of mutations in the tau gene in pallido-ponto- nigral degeneration and related neurodegenerative disorders linked to chromosome 17. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:13103–13107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SU JH, CUMMINGS BJ, COTMAN CW: Plaque biogenesis in brain ageing and Alzheimer's disease. II. Progressive transformation and developmental sequence of dystrophic neurites. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl) (1998) 96:463–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROGERS J, WEBSTER S, LUE LF, et al.: Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Neurobiol. Ageing (1996) 17:681-686.12. CAMPBELL IL, ABRAHAM CR, MASLIAH E, et al.: Neurologic disease induced in transgenic mice by cerebral overexpression of interleukin 6. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1993) 90:10061–10065.
   Google Scholar
• HAUSS-WEGRZYNIAK B, DOBRZANSKI P, STOEHR JD, WENK GL: Chronic neuroinflammation in rats reproduces components of the neurobiology of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res. (1998) 780:294–303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TERRY RD, MASLIAH E, SALMON DP, et al.: Physical basis of cognitive alterations in Alzheimer's disease: synapse loss is the major correlate of cognitive impairment. Ann. Neurol. (1991) 30:572–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IKEDA S, YANAGISAWA N, ALLSOP D, GLENNER GG: Evidence of amyloid I3-protein immunoreactive early plaque lesions in Down's syndrome brains. Lab. Invest. (1989) 61:133–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IKEDA S, TOKUDA T, YANAGISAWA N, KAMETANI F, OHSHIMA T, ALLSOP D: Variability of f3-amyloid protein deposited lesions in Down's syndrome brains. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. (1994) 174:189-198.17.IWATSUBO T, MANN DM, ODAKA A, SUZUKI N, IHARA Y: Amyloid 13 protein (a13) deposition: up 42(43) precedes up 40 in Down's syndrome. Ann. Neurol. (1995) 37:294–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEMERE CA, BLUSZTAJN JK, YAMAGUCHI H, WISNIEWSKI T, SAIDO TC, SELKOE DJ: Sequence of deposition of heterogeneous amyloid f3-peptides and APO E in Down's syndrome: implications for initial events in amyloid plaque formation. Neurobiol. Dis. (1996) 3:16–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRASHER VP, FARRER MJ, KESSLING AM, et al.: Molecular mapping of Alzheimer-type dementia in Down's syndrome. Ann. Neurol. (1998) 43:380–383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SELKOE DJ: The cell biology of f3-amyloid precursor protein and presenilin in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Cell Biol. (1998) 8:447–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GAMES D, ADAMS D, ALESSANDRINI R, et al.: Alzheimer-type neuropathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F 0-amyloid precursor protein. Nature (1995) 373:523–527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••The first Tg mouse to deposit AB plaques in the brain. Owned by Athena Neurosciences/Eli Lilly.
   Google Scholar
• HSIAO K, CHAPMAN P, NILSEN S, et al.: Correlative memory deficits, A0 elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice. Science (1996) 274:99–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STURCHLER-PIERRAT C, ABRAMOWSKI D, DUKE M, et al.: Two amyloid precursor protein transgenic mouse models with Alzheimer's disease-like pathology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94:13287–13292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SUH YH: An etiological role of amyloidogenic carboxyl-terminal fragments of the 0-amyloid precursor protein in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. (1997) 68:1781-1791.25.JELLINGER KA, BANCHER C: Proposals for re-evaluation of current autopsy criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Ageing (1997) 18:55–65.
   Google Scholar
• LUE LF, BRACHOVA L, CIVIN WH, ROGERS J: Inflammation, Ap deposition, and neurofibrillary tangle formation as correlates of Alzheimer's disease neurodegeneration. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. (1996) 55:1083–1088.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A study that shows the extensive AD histopathology can be found in cognitively normal individuals.
   Google Scholar
• MACKENZIE IR, MCLACHLAN RS, KUBU CS, MILLER LA: Prospective neuropsychological assessment of non-demented patients with biopsy proven senile plaques. Neurology (1996) 46:425–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MORRIS JC, STORANDT M, MCKEEL DWJ, et al.: Cerebral amyloid deposition and diffuse plaques in 'normal' ageing: Evidence for presymptomatic and very mild Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (1996) 46:707–719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEVERENZ JB, RASKIND MA: Early amyloid deposition in the medial temporal lobe of young Down's syndrome patients: A regional quantitative analysis. Exp. Neurol. (1998) 150:296-304.30.BIRGE SJ: The role of estrogen in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (1997) 48:36–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIRGE SJ: The role of estrogen in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology (1997) 48:36–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Provides an excellent rationale for the treatment or prevention of AD using oestrogen.
   Google Scholar
• HENDERSON VW: The epidemiology of estrogen replacement therapy and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (1997) 48:27–35.
   Google Scholar
• MEYER MR, TSCHANZ JT, NORTON MC, et al.: ApoE genotype predicts when - not whether - one is predisposed to develop Alzheimer's disease. Nature Genet. (1998) 19:321–322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WISNIEWSKI T, CASTANO EM, GOLABEK A, VOGEL T, FRANGIONE B: Acceleration of Alzheimer's fibril formation by apolipoprotein E in vitro. Am. J. Pathol. (1994) 145:1030–1035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BALES KR, VERINA T, DODEL RC, et al.: Lack of apolipoprotein E dramatically reduces amyloid 0-peptide deposition. Nature Genet. (1997) 17:263–264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• POIRIER J: Apolipoprotein E in animal models of CNS injury and in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci. (1994) 17:525–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PABLOS-MENDEZ A, MAYEUX R, NGAI C, SHEA S, BERGLUND L: Association of apo E polymorphism with plasma lipid levels in a multiethnic elderly population. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1997) 17:3534–3541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FRIEDLAND RP: Epidemiology and neurobiology of the multiple determinants of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Ageing (1994) 15:239–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SKOOG I, LERNFELT B, LANDAHL S, et al.: 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet (1996) 347:1141–1145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SPARKS DL: Coronary artery disease, hypertension, ApoE, and cholesterol: a link toAlzheimer's disease Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1997) 826:128–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••A summary of a series of studies establishing a link between AD histopathology andcardiovascular disease.
   Google Scholar
• OTT A, BRETELER MM, DE BRUYNE MC, VAN HARSKAMP F, GROBBEE DE, HOFMAN A: Atrial fibrillation and dementia in a population-based study. The Rotterdam Study. Stroke (1997) 28:316–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARIN DB, BREUER B, MARIN ML, et al.: The relationship between apolipoprotein E, dementia, and vascular illness. Atherosclerosis (1998) 140:173–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KALARIA RN, HEDERA P: Differential degeneration of the cerebral microvasculature in Alzheimer's disease. NeuroReport (1995) 6:477–480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLAUS JJ, BRETELER MM, HASAN D, et al.: Regional cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular risk factors in the elderly population. Neurobiol. Ageing (1998) 19:57–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JOBST KA, BARNETSON LP, SHEPSTONE BJ: Accurate prediction of histologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease and the differential diagnosis of dementia: the use of NINCDS-ADRDA and DSM- III-R criteria, SPECT, X-ray CT, and APO E4 medial temporal lobe dementias. The Oxford Project to Investigate Memory and Ageing. Int. Psychogeriatr. (1997) 9 (Suppl. 1) :191–222.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Imaging studies that show that loss of brain volume preceeds and is related to the cognitive decline resulting from AD.
   Google Scholar
• LEHTOVIRTA M, KUIKKA J, HELISALMI S, et al.: Longitudinal SPECT study in Alzheimer's disease: relation to apolipoprotein E polymorphism. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1998) 64:742–746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SPARKS DL, HUNSAKER JC, SCHEFF SW, KRYSCIO RJ, HENSON JL, MARKESBERY WR: Cortical senile plaques in coronary artery disease, ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Ageing (1990) 11:601–607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUO YM, EMMERLING MR, BISGAIER CL, et al.: Elevated Low-Density Lipoprotein in Alzheimer's Disease Correlates with Brain Af3 1-42 Levels. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (1998) 252:711–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LANDEN M, THORSELL A, WALLIN A, BLENNOW K: The apolipoprotein E allele c 4 does not correlate with the number of senile plaques or neurofibrillary tangles in patients with Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1996) 61:352–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NAGY Z, ESIRI MM, JOBST KA, et al.: Influence of the apolipoprotein E genotype on amyloid deposition and neurofibrillary tangle formation in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience (1995) 69:757–761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OHM TG, KIRCA M, BOHL J, SCHARNAGL H, GROSS W, MARZ W: Apolipoprotein E polymorphism influences not only cerebral senile plaque load but also Alzheimer-type neurofibrillary tangle formation. Neuroscience (1995) 66:583–587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WARZOK RW, KESSLER C, APEL G, et al.: Apolipoprotein E4 promotes incipient Alzheimer pathology in the elderly. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. (1998) 12:33–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YAMADA M, ITOH Y, SUEMATSU N, OTOMO E, MATSUSHITA M: Apolipoprotein E genotype in elderly non-demented subjects without senile changes in the brain. Ann. Neurol. (1996) 40:243–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZUBENKO GS, STIFFLER S, STABLER S: Association of the apolipoprotein E c 4 allele with clinical subtypes of autopsy-confirmed Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Med. Genet. (1994) 54:199–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ERIKSSON PS, PERFILIEVA E, BJORK-ERIKSSON T, et al.: Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Med. (1998) 4:1313–1317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROSES AD: Apolipoprotein E, a gene with complex biological interactions in the ageing brain. Neurobiol. Dis. (1997) 4:170–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCGEER PL, SCHULZER M, MCGEER EG: Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer's disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology (1996) 47:425–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A review of epidemiological evidence supporting the role of anti-inflammatory drugs in delaying or preventing AD.
   Google Scholar
• FORETTE F, SEUX ML, STAESSEN JA, et al.: Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet (1998) 352:1347–1351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KALMIJN S, LAUNER LJ, OTT A, WITTEMAN JC, HOFMAN A, BRETELER MM: Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study. Ann. Neurol. (1997) 42:776–782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ORGOGOZO JM, DARTIGUES JF, LAFONT S, et al.: Wine consumption and dementia in the elderly: a prospective community study in the Bordeaux area. Rev. Neurol. (Paris) (1997) 153:185–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• QIZILBASH N, WHITEHEAD A, HIGGINS J, WILCOCK G, SCHNEIDER L, FARLOW M: Cholinesterase inhibition for Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis of the tacrine trials. Dementia Trialists' Collaboration. JAMA (1998) 280:1777–1782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KNOPMAN DS: Current pharmacotherapies for Alzheimer's disease. Geriatrics (1998) 53 (Suppl. 1):531–534.
   Google Scholar
• KNOPMAN D, SCHNEIDER L, DAVIS K, et al.: Long-term tacrine (Cognex) treatment: effects on nursing home placement and mortality, Tacrine Study Group. Neurology (1996) 47:166–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SANO M, ERNESTO C, THOMAS RG, et al.: A controlled trial of selegiline, a-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. New Engl. J. Med. (1997) 336:1216–1222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A clinical trial testing the efficacy of an antioxidant compound in the treatment of AD with some hints of efficacy.
   Google Scholar
• BARTUS RT, DEAN RL, BEER B, LIPPA AS: The cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction. Science (1982) 217:408–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CALLAHAN MJ: Combining tacrine with milameline improves the reversal of a scopolamine-induced impairment of continuous performance in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (1999) (In Press).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ••A new study showing the potential advantages of a combined cholinomimetic approach tothe treatment of AD.
   Google Scholar
• AVERY EE, BAKER LD, ASTHANA S: Potential role of muscarinic agonists in Alzheimer's disease. Drugs Ageing (1997) 11:450–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBERSON MR, HARRELL LE: Cholinergic activity and amyloid precursor protein metabolism. Brain Res. Rev. (1997) 25:50–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOFMAN A, OTT A, BRETELER MM, et al.: Atherosclerosis, apolipoprotein E, and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Rotterdam Study. Lancet (1997) 349:151–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GUO Z, VIITANEN M, FRATIGLIONI L, WINBLAD B: Low blood pressure and dementia in elderly people: the Kungsholmen project. Br. Med. J. (1996) 312:805–808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SNOWDON DA, GREINER LH, MORTIMER JA, RILEY KP, GREINER PA, MARKESBERY WR: Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer's disease. The Nun Study. JAMA (1997) 277:813–817.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ARONSON MK, 001 WL, MORGENSTERN H, et al.: Women, myocardial infarction, and dementia in the very old. Neurology (1990) 40:1102–1106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BROWN WR, MOODY DM, TYTELL M, GHAZI-BIRRY HS, CHALLA VR: Microembolic brain injuries from cardiac surgery: are they seeds of future Alzheimer's disease Ann. NY Acad. Sri. (1997) 826:386–389.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• TARDIFF BE, NEWMAN MF, SAUNDERS AM, et al.: Preliminary report of a genetic basis for cognitive decline after cardiac operations. The Neurologic Outcome Research Group of the Duke Heart Center. Ann. Thorac. Surg. (1997) 64:715–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRETELER MM, CLAUS JJ, GROBBEE DE, HOFMAN A: Cardiovascular disease and distribution of cognitive function in elderly people: the Rotterdam Study. Br. Med. J. (1994) 308:1604–1608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KILANDER L, NYMAN H, BOBERG M, HANSSON L, LITHELL H: Hypertension is related to cognitive impairment: a 20-year follow-up of 999 men. Hypertension (1998) 31:780–786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SONEIRA CF, SCOTT TM: Severe cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease: senile plaque formation in cortical areas. Clin. Anat. (1996) 9:118–127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GRANT WB: Dietary Links to Alzheimer's Disease. Alz. Dis. Rev. (1997) 2:42–55.
   Google Scholar
• JOOSTEN E, LESAFFRE E, RIEZLER R, et al.: Is metabolic evidence for vitamin B-12 and folate deficiency more frequent in elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. (1997) 52:M76–M79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEHMANN M, GOTTFRIES CG, REGLAND B: Identification of Cognitive Impairment in the Elderly: Homocysteine Is an Early Marker. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. (1998) 10:12–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCCADDON A, DAVIES G, HUDSON P, TANDY S, CATTELL H: Total serum homocysteine in senile dementia of Alzheimer type. mt. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry (1998) 13:235–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• POIRIER J: Apolipoprotein E in the brain and its role in Alzheimer's disease. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. (1996) 21:128–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DAVIGNON J, GREGG RE, SING CF: Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis (1988) 8:1–21.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SLOOTER AJ, TANG MX, VAN DUUN CM, et al.: Apolipoprotein E 84 and the risk of dementia with stroke. A population-based investigation. JAMA (1997) 277:818–821.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CORDER EH, SAUNDERS AM, RISCH NJ, et al.: Protective effect of apolipoprotein E Type 2 allele for late onset Alzheimer's disease. Nature Genet. (1994) 7:180–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FORETTE F, SEUX ML, THUS L, et al.: Detection of cerebral ageing, an absolute need: predictive value of cognitive status. Eur. Neurol. (1998) 39 (Suppl. 1) :2–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NASR A, BRECKWOLDT M: Estrogen replacement therapy and cardiovascular protection: lipid mechanisms are the tip of an iceberg. Gynecol. Endocrinol. (1998) 12:43–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CROUSE JR, BYINGTON RP, FURBERG CD: HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor therapy and stroke risk reduction: an analysis of clinical trials data. Atherosclerosis (1998) 138:11–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ENDRES M, LAUFS U, HUANG Z, et al.: Stroke protection by 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase inhibitors mediated by endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:8880–8885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HERNANDEZ-PERERA O, PEREZ-SALA D, NAVARRO-ANTOLIN J, et al.: Effects of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors, atorvastatin and simvastatin, on the expression of endothelin-1 and endothelial nitric oxide synthase in vascular endothelial cells. J. Clin. Invest. (1998) 101:2711–2719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WALSH BW, KULLER LH, WILD RA, et al.: Effects of raloxifene on serum lipids and coagulation factors in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA (1998) 279:1445–1451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MIJATOVIC V, NETELENBOS C, VAN DER MOOREN MJ, VALK-DE ROO GW, JAKOBS C, KENEMANS P: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of raloxifene and conjugated equine estrogen on plasma homocysteine levels in healthy postmenopausal women. Fertit Steril. (1998) 70:1085–1089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRINCE MJ, BIRD AS, BLIZARD RA, MANN AH: Is the cognitive function of older patients affected by antihypertensive treatment Results from 54 months of the Medical Research Council's trial of hypertension in older adults. BMJ (1996) 312:801–805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KNOPMAN DS, MORRIS JC: An update on primary drug therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Arch. Neurol. (1997) 54:1406–1409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARKESBERY WR: Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (1997) 23:134–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •An excellent overview of the role of oxidative stress in AD and its biomarkers in AD brains and CSF.
   Google Scholar
• SMITH MA, RICHEY HP, SAYRE LM, BECKMAN JS, PERRY G: Widespread peroxynitrite-mediated damage in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurosci. (1997) 17:2653–2657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RETZ W, GSELL W, MUNCH G, ROSLER M, RIEDERER P: Free radicals in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neural. Transm. Suppl. (1998) 54:221–236.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DE LA TORRE JC: Cerebromicrovascular pathology in Alzheimer's disease compared to normal ageing. Gerontology (1997) 43:26–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A provocative discussion of the potential role of chronic brain hypoperfusion in the development of AD.
   Google Scholar
• BEAL MF: Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. Biochim. Biophys.Acta. (1998) 1366:211–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Discussion of the role of mitochondrial free radical formation in triggering neurodegeneration.
   Google Scholar
• FARLOW MR: Etiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. (1998) 55 (Suppl. 2):S5–10.
   Google Scholar
• PASINETTI GM: Cyclooxygenase and inflammation in Alzheimer's disease: experimental approaches and clinical interventions. J. Neurosci. Res. (1998) 54:1–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZALESKA MM, FLOYD RA: Regional lipid peroxidation in rat brain in vitro: possible role of endogenous iron. Neurochem. Res. (1985) 10:397–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ansell GB, Hawthorne JN, Dawson RM (Eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1998) 441–482.
   Google Scholar
• CASTELLANI RJ, PERRY G, HARRIS PL, et al.: Advanced lipid peroxidation end-products in Alexander's disease. Brain Res. (1998) 787:15–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAYRE LM, ZELASKO DA, HARRIS PL, PERRY G, SALOMON RG, SMITH MA: 4-Hydroxynonenal-derived advanced lipid peroxidation end products are increased in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. (1997) 68:2092–2097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Evidence for an important pathogenetic role of neurotoxic lipid peroxidation-derived aldehydic products in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis.
   Google Scholar
• SMITH MA, RICHEY PL, TANEDA S, et al.: Advanced Maillard reaction end products, freeradicals, and protein oxidation in Alzheimer's disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1994) 738:447–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALL ED, BRAUGHLER JM: Free radicals in CNS injury. Res. Publ. Assoc. Res. Nerv. Ment.Dis. (1993) 71:81–105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Review of the sources of reactive oxygen species in traumatic and ischaemic CNS injury and the important role of lipid peroxidative membrane damage in acute neurodegeneration.
   Google Scholar
• Halliwell B, Gutteridge (Eds.), Oxford Univ. Press, JMC New York, USA (1991).
   Google Scholar
• •Expert review of oxygen radical chemistry and biochemistry.
   Google Scholar
• ARAKI N, GREENBERG JH, UEMATSU D, SLADKY JT, REIVICH M: Effect of superoxide dismutase on intracellular calcium in stroke. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. (1992) 12:43–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IMAIZUMI S, WOOLWORTH V, FISHMAN RA, CHAN PH: Liposome-entrapped superoxide dismutase reduces cerebral infarction in cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke (1990) 21:1312–1317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MACDONALD RL, WEIR BK, RUNZER TD, GRACE MG, POZNANSKY MJ: Effect of intrathecal superoxide dismutase and catalase on oxyhemoglobin-induced vasospasm in monkeys. Neurosurgery (1992) 30:529–539.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UYAMA O, MATSUYAMA T, MICHISHITA H, NAKAMURA H, SUGITA M: Protective effects of human recombinant superoxide dismutase on transient ischemic injury of CA1 neurons in gerbils. Stroke (1992) 23:75–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PHILLIS JW, CLOUGH-HELFMAN C: Protection from cerebral ischemic injury in gerbils with the spin trap agent N-tert-butyl-a-phenylnitrone (PBN). Neurosci. Lett. (1990) 116:315–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZHAO Q, PAHLMARK K, SMITH ML, SIESJO BK: Delayed treatment with the spin trap a-phenyl-N-tert-butyl nitrone (PBN) reduces infarct size following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. Acta Physiol. Scand. (1994) 152:349–350.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SMITH CD, CARNEY JM, STARKE-REED PE, et al.: Excess brain protein oxidation and enzyme dysfunction in normal ageing and in Alzheimer's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1991) 88:10540–10543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAHLMARK K, FOLBERGROVA J, SMITH ML, SIESJO BK: Effects of dimethylthiourea on selective neuronal vulnerability in forebrain ischemia in rats. Stroke (1993) 24:731–736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ALTHAUS JS, ANDRUS PK, WILLIAMS CM, VONVOIGTLANDER PF, CAZERS AR, HALL ED: The use of salicylate hydroxylation to detect hydroxyl radical generation in ischemic and traumatic brain injury. Reversal by tirilazad mesylate (U-74006F). Mol. Chem. Neuropathol. (1993) 20:147–162.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ZHANG J, PIANTADOSI CA: Prolonged production of hydroxyl radical in rat hippocampus after brain ischemia-reperfusion is decreased by 21-aminosteroids. Neurosci. Lett. (1994) 177:127–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALL ED, MCCALL JM, MEANS ED: Therapeutic potential of the lazaroids (21-aminosteroids) in acute central nervous system trauma, ischemia and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Adv. Pharmacol. (1994) 28:221–268.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ASANO T, JOHSHITA H, KOIDE T, TAKAKURA K: Amelioration of ischaemic cerebral oedema by a free radical scavenger, AVS: 1,2-bis(nicotinamido)-propane. An experimental study using a regional ischaemia model in cats. Neurol. Res. (1984) 6:163–168.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BECKMAN JS: The double-edged role of nitric oxide in brain function and superoxide-mediated injury. J. Dev. Physiol. (1991) 15:53–59.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HENSLEY K, MAIDT ML, YU Z, SANG H, MARKESBERY WR, FLOYD RA: Electrochemical analysis of protein nitrotyrosine and dityrosine in the Alzheimer brain indicates region-specific accumulation. J. Neurosci. (1998) 18:8126–8132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ALTHAUS JS, OIEN TT, FICI GJ, SCHERCH HM, SETHY VH, VONVOIGTLANDER PF: Structure activity relationships of peroxynitrite scavengers an approach to nitric oxide neurotoxicity. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. (1994) 83:243–254.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHITEMAN M, HALLIWELL B: Thiourea and dimethylthiourea inhibit peroxynitrite-dependent damage: non-specificity as hydroxyl radical scavengers. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (1997) 22:1309–1312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SALVEMINI D, WANG ZQ, STERN MK, CURRIE MG, MISKO TP: Peroxynitrite decomposition catalysts: therapeutics for peroxynitrite- mediated pathology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:2659–2663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCCAY PB: Vitamin E: interactions with free radicals and ascorbate. Ann. Rev. Nutr. (1985) 5:323–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MACHLIN LJ, GABRIEL E: Kinetics of tissue a-tocopherol uptake and depletion following administration of high levels of vitamin E. Ann. NY Acad. Sri. (1982) 393:48–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALL ED, BRAUGHLER JM, YONKERS PA, et al.: U-78517F: a potent inhibitor of lipid percuddation with activity in experimental brain injury and ischemia. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1991) 258:688–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLEMENS JA, HO PP, PANETTA JA: LY178002 reduces rat brain damage after transient global forebrain ischemia. Stroke (1991) 22:1048–1052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PREHN JH, KARKOUTLY C, NUGLISCH J, PERUCHE B, KRIEGLSTEIN J: Dihydrolipoate reduces neuronal injury after cerebral ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. (1992) 12:78–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALL ED, ANDRUS PK, SMITH SL, et al.: Pyrrolopyrimidines: novel brain-penetrating antioxidants with neuroprotective activity in brain injury and ischemia models. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1997) 281:895–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OOSTVEEN JA, DUNN E, CARTER DB, HALL ED: Neuroprotective efficacy and mechanisms of novel pyrrolopyrimidine lipid peroxidation inhibitors in the gerbil forebrain ischemia model. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. (1998) 18:539–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUMAR K, WHITE BC, KRAUSE GS, et al.: A quantitative morphological assessment of the effect of lidoflazine and deferoxamine therapy on global brain ischaemia. Neurol. Res. (1988) 10:136–140.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ROSENTHAL RE, CHANDERBHAN R, MARSHALL G, FISKUM G: Prevention of post-ischemic brain lipid conjugated diene production and neurological injury by hydroxyethyl starch-conjugated deferoxamine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (1992) 12:29–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VOLLMER DG, HONGO K, OGAWA H, TSUKAHARA T, KASSELL NF: A study of the effectiveness of the iron-chelating agent deferoxamine as vasospasm prophylaxis in a rabbit model of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery (1991) 28:27–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CRAPPER MD, DALTON AJ, KRUCK TP, et al.: Intramuscular desferrioxamine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Lancet (1991) 337:1304–1308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALL ED: The neuroprotective pharmacology of methylprednisolone. J. Neurosurg. (1992) 76:13–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HARDY J, DUFF K, HARDY KG, PEREZ-TUR J, HUTTON M: Genetic dissection of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias: amyloid and its relationship to tau. Nature Neurosci. (1998) 1:355–358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUXBAUM JD, LIU KN, LUO Y et al.: Evidence that tumor necrosis factor a converting enzyme is involved in regulated a-secretase cleavage of the Alzheimer amyloid protein precursor. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:27765–27767.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Identification of a potential secretase in mammalian cells.
   Google Scholar
• PARVATHY S, HUSSAIN I, KARRAN EH, TURNER AJ, HOOPER NM: Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein a-secretase is inhibited by hydroxamic acid-based zinc metalloprotease inhibitors: similarities to the angiotensin converting enzyme secretase. Biochemistry (1998) 37:1680–1685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBERTS SB, RIPELLINO JA, INGALLS KM, ROBAKIS NK, FELSENSTEIN KM: Non-amyloidogenic cleavage of the 0-amyloid precursor protein by an integral membrane metalloendopeptidase. J. Biol. Chem. (1994) 269:3111–3116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CAPORASO GL, GANDY SE, BUXBAUM JD, RAMABHADRAN TV, GREENGARD P: Protein phosphorylation regulates secretion of Alzheimer 13/A4 amyloid precursor protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1992) 89:3055–3059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NITSCH RM, SLACK BE, FARBER SA, et al.: Receptor-coupled amyloid precursor protein processing. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1993) 695:122–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JOLLY-TORNETTA C, GAO ZY, LEE VM, WOLF BA: Regulation of amyloid precursor protein secretion by glutamate receptors in human Ntera 2 neurons. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:14015–14021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SASTRE M, TURNER RS, LEVY E: X11 interaction with 0-amyloid precursor protein modulates its cellular stabilization and reduces amyloid 0-protein secretion. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:22351–22357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Establishes the importance of X11 protein interactions with the C-terminus of full-lengthPAPP in reducing its amyloidogenic processing.
   Google Scholar
• SABO SL, LANIER L, KHORKOVA 0, SAHASRABUDHE S, GREENGARD P, BUXBAUM JD: APP processing is increased upon over-expression of Fe65. Neurobiol. Ageing (1998) 19:S59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Establishes the importance of FE65 protein interactions with the C-terminus of full-lengthPAPP in increasing its amyloidogenic processing.
   Google Scholar
• ISHIURA S, TSUKAHARA T, TABIRA T, SUGITA H: Putative N-terminal splitting enzyme of amyloid A4 peptides is the multicatalytic proteinase, ingensin, which is widely distributed in mammalian cells. FEBS Lett. (1989) 257:388–392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOJIMA S, OMORI M: Two-way cleavage of 0-amyloid protein precursor by multicatalytic proteinase. FEBS Lett. (1992) 304:57–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MUNDY DI: Identification of the multicatalytic enzyme as a possible y- secretase for theamyloid precursor protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (1994) 204:333–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EVIN G, CAPPAI R, LI QX, CULVENOR JG, SMALL DH, BEYREUTHER K, MASTERS CL: Candidate y-secretases in the generation of the carboxyl terminus of the Alzheimer's disease 3A4 amyloid: possible involvement of cathepsin D. Biochemistry (1995) 34:14185–14192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LADROR US, SNYDER SW, WANG GT, HOLZMAN TF, KRAFFT GA: Cleavage at the amino and carboxyl termini of Alzheimer's amyloid-3 by cathepsin D. J. Biol. Chem. (1994) 269:18422–18428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAFTIG P, PETERS C, VON FIGURA K, CRAESSAERTS K, VAN LEUVEN F, DE STROOPER B: Amyloidogenic processing of human amyloid precursor protein in hippocampal neurons devoid of cathepsin D. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:27241–27244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAHASRABUDHE SR, BROWN AM, HULMES JD, et al.: Enzymatic generation of the amino terminus of the 3-amyloid peptide. J. Biol. Chem. (1993) 268:16699–16705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAVAGE MJ, IQBAL M, LOH T, TRUSKO SP, SCOTT R, SIMAN R: Cathepsin G: localization in human cerebral cortex and generation of amyloidogenic fragments from the 3-amyloid precursor protein. Neuroscience (1994) 60:607–619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SIMAN R, CARD JP, DAVIS LG: Proteolytic processing of J3-amyloid precursor by calpain I. J. Neurosci. (1990) 10:2400–2411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOMANO H, SEEGER M, GANDY S, WANG GT, KRAFFT GA, FULLER RS: Involvement of cell surface glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol-linked aspartyl proteases in a-secretase-type cleavage and ectodomain solubilization of human Alzheimer 3-amyloid precursor protein in yeast. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:31648–31651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHYUNG ASC, GREENBERG BD, COOK DG, DOMS RW, LEE VM: Novel 3 -secretase cleavage of 3-amyloid precursor protein in the endoplasmic reticulum/intermediate compartment of NT2N cells. J. Cell Biol. (1997) 138:671–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COOK DG, FORMAN MS, SUNG JC, et al.: Alzheimer's A (1-42) is generated in the endoplasmic reticulum/intermediate compartment of NT2N cells. Nature Med. (1997) 3:1021–1023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HARTMANN T, BIEGER SC, BRUHL B, et al.: Distinct sites of intracellular production for Alzheimer's disease Ap 40/42 amyloid peptides. Nature Med. (1997) 3:1016–1020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SKOVRONSKY DM, DOMS RW, LEE VM: Detection of a novel intraneuronal pool of insoluble amyloid 3 protein that accumulates with time in culture. J. Cell Biol. (1998) 141:1031–1039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILD-BODE C, YAMAZAKI T, CAPELL A, LEIMER U, STEINER H, IHARA Y, HAASS C: Intracellular generation and accumulation of amyloid 3-peptide terminating at amino acid 42. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:16085–16088.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RAWSON RB, ZELENSKI NG, NIJHAWAN D, et al.: Complementation cloning of S2P, a gene encoding a putative metalloprotease required for intramembrane cleavage of SREBPs. Mol. Cell (1997) 1:47–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISHIURA S: Proteolytic cleavage of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid A4 precursor protein. J. Neurochem. (1991) 56:363–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ALLSOP D, HOWLETT D, CHRISTIE G, KARRAN E: Fibrillogenesis of J3-amyloid. Biochem. Soc. Trans. (1998) 26:459–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SELKOE DJ, WOLFE MS, OSTASZEWSKI B, XIA W: FAD-causing missense mutations in both APP and presenilin reduce the Ap lowering effect of a putative y-secretase inhibitor. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. (1998) 24:5.
   Google Scholar
• HAASS C, CAPELL A, CITRON M, TEPLOW DB, SELKOE DJ: The vacuolar H(+)-ATPase inhibitor bafilomycin Al differentially affects proteolytic processing of mutant and wild-type 3-amyloid precursor protein. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:6186–6192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHENK DB, RYDEL RE, MAY P, et al.: Therapeutic approaches related to amyloid 3-peptide and Alzheimer's disease. J. Med. Chem. (1995) 38:4141–4154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CITRON M, DIEHL TS, CAPELL A, HAASS C, TEPLOW DB, SELKOE DJ: Inhibition of amyloid f3-protein production in neural cells by the serine protease inhibitor AEBSF. Neuron (1996) 17:171–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WOLFE MS, CITRON M, DIEHL TS, XIA W, DONKOR 10, SELKOE DJ: A substrate-based difluoro ketone selectively inhibits Alzheimer's y-secretase activity. J. Med. Chem. (1998) 41:6–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHEVALLIER N, VIZZAVONA J, MARAMBAUD P, et al.: Cathepsin D displays in vitro 0-secretase-like specificity. Brain Res. (1997) 750:11–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CITRON M, DIEHL TS, GORDON G, BIERE AL, SEUBERT P, SELKOE DJ: Evidence that the 42- and 40-amino acid forms of amyloid f3 protein are generated from the 0-amyloid precursor protein by different protease activities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1996) 93:13170–13175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KLAFKI H, ABRAMOWSKI D, SWOBODA R, PAGANETTI PA, STAUFENBIEL M: The carboxyl termini of 0-amyloid peptides 1-40 and 1-42 are generated by distinct y-secretase activities. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:28655–28659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YAMAZAKI T, HAASS C, SAIDO TC, OMURA S, IHARA Y: Specific increase in amyloid 0-protein 42 secretion ratio by calpain inhibition. Biochemistry (1997) 36:8377–8383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEINER H, CAPELL A, PESOLD B, et al.: Expression of Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilin-1 is controlled by proteolytic degradation and complex formation. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:32322–32331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• URMONEIT B, TURNER J, DYRKS T: Cationic lipids (lipofectamine) and disturbance of cellular cholesterol and sphingomyelin distribution modulates y-secretase activity within amyloid precursor protein in vitro. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. (1998) 55:331–343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowman WC, Fitzgerald JD, Taylor JB (Eds.), Ashley Publications Ltd., London, UK (1996):125–154.
   Google Scholar
• IVERSEN LL, MORTISHIRE S, POLLACK SJ, SHEARMAN MS: The toxicity in vitro of -amyloid protein. Biochem. J. (1995) 311:1–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEVINE HIII: 0-Amyloid as a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease. ID Res. Alert (1996) 1:1–7.
   Google Scholar
• •Review of recent drugs targeting 0-amyloid.
   Google Scholar
• LAMBERT MP, BARLOW AK, CHROMY BA, et al.: Diffusible, non-fibrillar ligands derived from A01-42 are potent central nervous system neurotoxins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:6448–6453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •This article provides evidence that soluble oligomeric species of AB (ADDLS), mediate the toxic effects of the 0-peptide.
   Google Scholar
• TJERNBERG LO, NASLUND J, LINDQVIST F, et al.: Arrest of 0-amyloid fibril formation by a pentapeptide ligand. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:8545–8548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GHANTA J, SHEN CL, KIESSLING LL, MURPHY RM: A strategy for designing inhibitors of 0-amyloid toxicity. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:29525–29528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SOLOMON B, KOPPLE R, HANAN E, KATZAV T: Monoclonal antibodies inhibit in vitro fibrillar aggregation of the Alzheimer 0-amyloid peptide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1996) 93:452–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BANDIERA T, MANSEN J, POST C, VARASI M: Inhibitors of Ap peptide aggregation as potential anti-Alzheimer agents. Curr. Med. Chem. (1997) 4:159–170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A review of anti-A0 aggregation agents.
   Google Scholar
• TOMIYAMA T, SHOJI A, KATAOKA K, et al.: Inhibition of amyloid 3 protein aggregation and neurotcuticity by rifampicin. Its possible function as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:6839–6844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOWLETT D, CUTLER P, HEALES S, CAMILLERI P: Hemin and related porphyrins inhibit 0-amyloid aggregation. FEBS Lett. (1997) 417:249–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LORENZO A, YANKNER BA: f3-amyloid neurotoxicity requires fibril formation and isinhibited by Congo red. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1994) 91:12243–12247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •This early paper provides proof of concept that small molecule inhibitors of aggregation can also reverse neurotoxicity.
   Google Scholar
• LORENZO A, YANKNER BA: Amyloid fibril toxicity in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1996) 777:89-95.188.KISILEVSKY R, LEMIEUX 1„), FRASER PE, KONG X, HULTIN PG, SZAREK WA: Arresting amyloidosis in vivo using small-molecule anionic sulphonates or sulphates: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Nature Med. (1995) 1:143–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WOOD SJ, MACKENZIE L, MALEEFF B, HURLE MR, WETZEL R: Selective inhibition of Af3 fibril formation. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:4086–4092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAPPOLLA MA, SOS M, OMAR RA, et al.: Melatonin prevents death of neuroblastoma cells exposed to the Alzheimer amyloid peptide. J. Neurosci. (1997) 17:1683–1690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIANNI L, BELLOTTI V, GIANNI AM, MERLINI G: New drug therapy of amyloidoses: resorption of AL-type deposits with 4' -iodo-4' -deoxydoxorubicin. Blood (1995) 86:855-861.192. MERLINI G, ASCARI E, AMBOLDI N, et al.: Interaction of the anthracycline 4'-iodo-4'-deoxydoxorubicin with amyloid fibrils: inhibition of amyloidogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1995) 92:2959-2963.193. TAGLIAVINI F, MCARTHURRA, CANCIANI B, et al.: Effectiveness of anthracycline against experimental prion disease in Syrian hamsters. Science (1997) 276:1119–1122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MACKENZIE IR, MUNOZ DG: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use and Alzheimer-type pathology in ageing. Neurology (1998) 50:986–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Analysis of postmortem brains from aged, non-AD subjects treated extensively withanti-inflammatory drugs reveals fewer markers of inflammation associated with 3-amyloid plaques than individuals not on anti-inflammatory drugs.
   Google Scholar
• FRAUTSCHY SA, SIGEL JJ, HARRIS ME, et al.: Effects of inhibiting complement activation and microglial activation on A13 deposition and toxicity. Soc. Neurosci. Abstracts 24:1503.
   Google Scholar
• ROGERS J, KIRBY LC, HEMPELMAN SR, et al.: Clinical trial of indomethacin in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (1993) 43:1609–1611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AISEN PS, PASINETTI GM: Glucocorticoids in Alzheimer's disease. The story so far. Drugs Ageing (1998) 12:1–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SAPOLSKY RM: Stress, glucocorticoids, and damage to the nervous system: the current state of confusion. Stress (1996) 1:1-19.199. SCHUBERT P, OGATA T, RUDOLPHI K, MARCHINI C, MCRAE A, FERRONI S: Support of homeostatic glial cell signaling: a novel therapeutic approach by propentofylline. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1997) 826:337–347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCRAE A, LING EA, SCHUBERT P, RUDOLPHI K: Properties of activated microglia and pharmacologic interference by propentofylline. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. (1998) 12 (Suppl. 2) :S15–S20
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SI Q, NAKAMURA Y, OGATA T, KATAOKA K, SCHUBERT P: Differential regulation of microglial activation by propentofylline via cAMP signaling. Brain Res. (1998) 812:97–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROTHER M, ERKINJUNTTI T, ROESSNER M, KITTNER B, MARCUSSON J, KARLSSON I: Propentofylline in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: a review of Phase III trials. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. (1998) 9 (Suppl. 1):36–43.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HU J, AKAMA KT, KRAFFT GA, CHROMY BA, VAN ELDIK LJ: Amyloid-I3 peptide activates cultured astrocytes: morphological alterations, cytokine induction and nitric oxide release. Brain Res. (1998) 785:195–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRADT BM, KOLB WP, COOPER NR: Complement-dependent proinflammatory properties of the Alzheimer's disease 0-peptide. J. Exp. Med. (1998) 188:431–438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WATSON MD, ROHER AE, KIM KS, SPIEGEL K, EMMERLING MR: Complement laveling of aggregated Ab1-42 by normal human serum involves the classical and alternative pathways. In: Alzheimer's Disease: Biology, Diagnosis and Therapeutics. Iqbal K, Winblad T, Nishimura M, Takeda M and Wisniewski HM (Eds.) John Wiley & Sons, New York (1997) 365–373.
   Google Scholar
• •First demonstration that aggregated B-amyloid peptide alone could fully activate both complement pathways in human serum.
   Google Scholar
• WEBSTER S, LUE LF, BRACHOVA L, et al.: Molecular and cellular characterization of themembrane attack complex, C5b-9, in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Ageing (1997) 18:415–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIULIAN D, HAVERKAMP LJ, YU J, et al.: The HHQK domain of I3-amyloid provides a structural basis for the immunopathology of Alzheimer's disease. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:29719–29726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EL KHOURY J, HICKMAN SE, THOMAS CA, CAO L, SILVERSTEIN SC, LOIKE JD: Scavenger receptor-mediated adhesion of microglia to B-amyloid fibrils. Nature (1996) 382:716–719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YAN SD, CHEN X, FU J, et al.: RAGE and amyloid-I3 peptide neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease. Nature (1996) 382:685–691.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WATSON MD, EVANS LM, HASKE T, et al.: Complement activation by smooth muscle cell associated B-amyloid peptide. Soc. Neurosci. Abstracts (1998) 24:1463.
   Google Scholar
• WATSON MD, ROHER AE, KIM KS, SPIEGEL K, EMMERLING MR: Complement interactions with amyloid-I3 1-42: a nidus for inflammation in AD brains. Amyloid (1997) 4:147–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EMMERLING MR, SPIEGEL K, WATSON MD: Inhibiting the formation of classical C3 -convertase on the Alzheimer's -amyloid peptide. Immunopharmacology (1997) 38:101–109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HAYS SJ, CAPRATHE BW, GILMORE JL, et al.: 2-amino-4H-3,1-benzoxazin-4-ones as inhibitors of Clr serine protease. J. Med. Chem. (1998) 41:1060–1067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DANG LC, TALANIAN RV, BANACH D, et al.: Preparation of an autolysis-resistant interleukin-10 converting enzyme mutant. Biochemistry (1996) 35:14910–14916.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ARIMATSU Y, MIYAMOTO M: Survival-promoting effect of NGF on in vitro septohippocampal neurons with cholinergic and GABAergic phenotypes. Dev. Brain Res. (1991) 58:189–501.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •Demonstration that NGF promotes survival as well as neurotransmitter phenotype.
   Google Scholar
• LORENZI MV, KNOSEL B, HEFTI F, STRAUSS WL: Nerve growth factor regulation of choline acetyltransferase gene expression in rat embryo basal forebrain cultures. Neurosci. Lett. (1992) 140:185–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VAHLSING HL, HAGG T, SPENCER M, CONNER JM, MANTHORPE M, VARON S: Dose-dependent responses to nerve growth factor by adult rat cholinergic medial septum and neostriatum neurons. Brain Res. (1991) 552:320-329.218. BIERER LM, HAROUTUNIAN V, GABRIEL S, et al.: Neurochemical correlates of dementia severity in Alzheimer's disease: Relative importance of the cholinergic deficits. J. Neurochem. (1995) 64:749-760.219.DECKER MW, MCGAUGH JL: The role of interactions between the cholinergic system and other neuromodulatory systems in learning and memory. Synapse (1991) 7:151-168.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ALLEN SJ, MACGOWAN SH, TREANOR JJS, FEENEY R, WILCOCK GK, DAWBARN D: Normal 3-NGF content in Alzheimer's disease cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Neurosci. Lett. (1991) 131:135–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WORTWEIN G, YU J, TOLIVER-KINSKY T, PESKIND ER: Responses ofyoung and aged rat CNS to partial cholinergic immunolesions and NGF treatment. J. Neurosci. Res. (1998) 52:322–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NONOMURA T, NISHIO C, LINDSAY RM, HATANAKA H: Cultured basal forebrain cholinergic neurons from postnatal rats show both overlapping and non-overlapping responses to the neurotrophins. Brain Res. (1995) 683:129–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BEHAR TN, DUGICH-DJORDJEVIC MM, LI YX, et al.: Neurotrophins stimulate chemotaxis of embryonic cortical neurons. Eur. J. Neurosci. (1997) 9:2561–2570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LINDHOLM D, CARROLL P, TZIMAGIORGIS G, THOENEN H: Autocrine-paracrine regulation of hippocampal neuron survival by IGF-1 and the neurotrophins BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4. Eur. J. Neurosci. (1996) 8:1452–1460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUNUGI H, HATTORI M, UEKI A, ISSE K, HIRASAWA H, NANKO S: Possible association of missense mutation (G1y-63 Glu) of the neurotrophin-3 gene with Alzheimer's disease in Japanese. Neurosci. Lett. (1998) 241:65–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CREUZET C, LOEB J, BARBIN G: Fibroblast growth factors stimulate protein tyrosine phosphorylation and mitogen-activated protein kinase activity in primary cultures of hippocampal neurons. J. Neurochem. (1995) 64:1541–1547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IP NY, LI Y, VAN DE STADT I, PANAYOTATOS N, ALDERSON RF, LINDSAY RM: Ciliary neurotrophic factor enhances neuronal survival in embryonic rat hippocampal cultures. J. Neurosci. (1991) 11:3124–3134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHEEMA SS, ARUMUGAM D, MURRAY SS, BARTLETT PF: Leukemia inhibitory factor maintains choline acetyltransferase expression in vivo. NeuroReport (1998) 9:363–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LAPCHAK PA, MILLER PJ, RAO S: Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor induces the dopaminergic and cholinergic phenotype and increases locomotor activity in aged Fischer 344 rats. Neuroscience (1997) 77:745–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DORE S, KAR S, QUIRION R: Insulin-like growth factor I protects and rescues hippocampal neurons against 0-amyloid- and human amylin-induced toxicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94:4772–4777.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JONHAGEN ME, NORDBERG A, AMBERLA K, et al.: Intracerebroventricular infusion of nerve growth factor in three patients with Alzheimer's disease. Dementia (1998) 9:246–257.
   Google Scholar
• •First trial of nerve growth factor in Alzheimer's disease.
   Google Scholar
• BESCH A, TUSZYNSKI M: Ex vivo gene therapy for Alzheimer's disease and spinal cord injury. Clin. Neurosci. (1995) 3:268–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CASACCIA-BONNEFIL P, KONG HY, CHAO MV: Neurotrophins: the biological paradox of survival factors eliciting apoptosis. Cell Death Differ. (1998) 5:357–364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RABIZADEH S, OH J, ZHONG L, et al.: Induction of apoptosis by the low-affinity NGF receptor. Science (1993) 261:345–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •First description of a physiological role for the p75 NGF receptor.
   Google Scholar
• HEMPSTEAD BL, RABIN SJ, KAPLAN L, REID S, PARADA LF, KAPLAN DR: Overexpression of the trk tyrosine kinase rapidly accelerates nerve growth factor-induced differentiation. Neuron (1992) 9:883–896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GILL JS, WINDEBANK AJ: Direct activation of the high-affinity nerve growth factor receptor by a non-peptide symmetrical polyanion. Neurosci. (1998) 87:855–860.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •First description of a non-peptide NGF agonist.
   Google Scholar
• SCHWARTZ JP, COSTA E: Regulation of nerve growth factor content in C6 glioma cells by f3adrenergic receptor stimulation. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. (1977) 300:123–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CARSWELL S, HOFFMAN EK, CLOPTON-HARTPENCE K, WILCOX HM, LEWIS ME: Induction of NGF by isoproterenol, 4-methylcatechol and serum occurs by three distinct mechanisms. Mol. Brain Res. (1992) 15:145–150.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KOUROUNAKIS A, BODOR N: Quantitative structure activity relationships of catechol derivatives on nerve growth factor secretion in L-M cells. Pharmacol. Res. (1995) 12:1199–1204.
   Google Scholar
• PALMER AM, BURNS MA: Selective increase in lipid peroxidation in the inferior temporal cortex in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res. (1994) 645:338–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOVELL MA, EHMANN WD, BUTLER SM, MARKESBERY WR: Elevated thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and antioxidant enzyme activity in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (1995) 45:1594–1601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OHKUBO T, MITSUMOTO Y, MOHRI T: Characterization of the uptake of adenosine by cultured rat hippocampal cells and inhibition of the uptake by xanthine derivatives. Neurosci. Lett. (1991) 133:275–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PARKINSON FE, FREDHOLM BB: Effects of propentofylline on adenosine Al and A2 receptors and nitrobenzylthioinosine-sensitive nucleoside transporters: quantitative autoradiographic analysis. Eur. J. Pharmacol. (1991) 202:361–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHINODA I, FURUKAWA Y, FURUKAWA S: Stimulation of nerve growth factor synthesis/secretion by propentofylline in cultured mouse astroglial cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. (1990) 39:1813–1816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NABESHIMA T, NITTA A, HASEGAWA T: Impairment of learning and memory and the accessory symptom in aged rat as senile dementia model (3): oral administration of propentofylline produces recovery of reduced NGF content in the brain of aged rats. Yakubuts Useishin. Kodo. (1993) 13:89–95.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PARK CK, RUDOLPHI KA: Anti-ischemic effects of propentofylline (HWA 285) against focal cerebral infarction in rats. Neurosci. Lett. (1994) 178:235–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FUJI K, HIRAMATSU M, KAMEYAMA T, NABESHIMA T: Effects of repeated administration of propentofylline on memory impairment produced by basal forebrain lesion in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. (1993) 236:411–417.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YAMADA K, TANAKA T, SENZAKI K, KAMEYAMA T, NABESHIMA T: Propentofylline improves learning and memory deficits in rats induced by13-amyloid protein-(1-40). Eur. J. Pharmacol. (1998) 349:15–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TORIGOE R, HAYASHI T, ANEGAWA S, HARADA K, TODA K, MAEDA K, KATSURAGI M: Effect of propentofylline and pentmdfylline on cerebral blood flow using 123I-IMP SPECT in patients with cerebral arteriosclerosis. Clin. Ther. (1994) 16:65–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MIELKE R, MOLLER HJ, ERKINJUNTTI T, ROSENKRANZ B, ROTHER M, KITTNER B: Propentofylline in the treatment of vascular dementia and Alzheimer-type dementia: overview of Phase land Phase II clinical trials. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. (1998) 12 (Suppl. 2):S29–S35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MOLLER HJ, MAURER I, SALETU B: Placebo-controlled trial of the xanthine derivative propentofylline in dementia. Pharmacopsychiatry (1994) 27:159–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHU-LAGRAFF Q, PHAM H, TAYLOR EM, HAUPTMANN N, PFADENHAUER E, GLASKY MS: Effect of AIT-082 on brain NGF mRNA levels and transport of AIT-082 across the blood-brain barrier. Soc. Neurosci. (1998) 24:770.
   Google Scholar
• MIDDLEMISS PJ, GLASKY AJ, RATHBONE MP, WERSTUIK E, HINDLEY S, GYSBERS J: AIT-082, a unique purine derivative, enhances nerve growth factor mediated neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells. Neurosci. Lett. (1995) 199:131–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JUURLINK BHJ, RATHBONE MP: The hypoxanthine analogue AIT-082 promotes neurite formation and regeneration in cultured hippocampal neurons. Soc. Neurosci. (1998) 24:770.
   Google Scholar
• CACIAGLI F, CICCARELLI R, DI IORIO P, et al.: The hypoxanthine derivative AIT-082 protects against neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. (1998) 24:770.
   Google Scholar
• SI QS, NAKAMURA Y, SCHUBERT P, RUDOLPHI K, KATAOKA K: Adenosine and propentofylline inhibit the proliferation of cultured microglial cells. Exp. Neurol. (1996) 137:345–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BANATI RB, SCHUBERT P, ROTHE G, et al.: Modulation of intracellular formation of reactive oxygen intermediates in peritoneal macrophages and microglia/brain macrophages by propentofylline. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. (1994) 14:145–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NITTA A, HASEGAWA T, NABESHIMA T: Oral administration of idebenone, a stimulator of NGF synthesis, recovers reduced NGF content in aged rat brain. Neurosci. Lett. (1993) 163:219–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TAKEUCHI R, MURASE K, FURUKAWA Y, FURUKAWA S, HAYASHI K: Stimulation of nerve growth factor synthesis/secretion by 1,4-benzoquinone and its derivatives in cultured mouse astroglial cells. FEBS Lett. (1990) 261:63–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MORDENTE A, MARTORANA GE, MINOTTI G, GIARDINA B: Antioxidant properties of 2,3-dimethoxy-5-methyl-6-(10-hydroxydecy1)- 1,4-benzoquinone (idebenone). Chem. Res. Toxicol. (1998) 11:54–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NAKAYAMA T, NAGISA Y, IMAMOTO T, NAGAI Y: Beneficial effects of TDN-345, anovel Ca2+ antagonist, on ischemic brain injury and cerebral glucose metabolism in experimental animal models with cerebrovascular lesions. Brain Res. (1997) 762:203–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FUKUMOTO H, KAKIHANA M, KAISHO Y, SUNO M: The novel compound TDN-345 induces synthesis/secretion of nerve growth factor in C6-10A glioma cells. Brain Res. (1997) 774 :87–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BACHY A, STEINBERG R, SANTUCCI V, et al.: Biochemical and electrophysiologicalproperties of SR 57746A, a new, potent 5-HT1A receptor agonist. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. (1993) 7:487–497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRADINES A, MAGAZIN M, SCHILTZ P, LE FUR G, CAPUT D, FERRARA P: Evidence for nerve growth factor-potentiating activities of the non-peptidic compound SR 57746A in PC12 cells. J. Neurochem. (1995) 64:1954–1964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TERRANOVA JP, KAN JP, STORME JJ, PERREAUT P, LE FUR G, SOUBRIE P: Administration of amyloid 0-peptides in the rat medial septum causes memory deficits: reversal by SR 57746A, a non-peptide neurotrophic compound. Neurosci. Lett. (1996) 213:79–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FOURNIER J, STEINBERG R, GAUTHIER T, et al.: Protective effects of SR 57746A in central and peripheral models of neurodegenerative disorders in rodents and primates. Neuroscience (1993) 55:629–641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHREIBER SL, CRABTREE GR: The mechanism of action of cyclosporin A and FK506. Immunol. Today (1992) 13:136–142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NELSON PA, AKSELBAND Y, KAWAMURA A, et al.: Immunosuppressive activity of [MeBm2t] 1-, D-diaminobutyry1-8-, and D-diaminopropy1-8-cyclosporin analogues correlates with inhibition of calcineurin phosphatase activity. J. Immunol. (1993) 150:2139–2147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MANEV H, FAVARON M, CANDEO P, FADDA E, LIPARTITI M, MILANI D: Macrolide antibiotics protect neurons in culture against the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated toxicity of glutamate. Brain Res. (1993) 624:331–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHARKEY J, BUTCHER SP: Immunophilins mediate the neuroprotective effects of FK506 in focal cerebral ischaemia. Nature (1994) 371:336–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WERA S, NEYTS J: Calcineurin as a possible new target for treatment of Parkinson's disease. Med. Hypotheses (1994) 43:132–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEINER JP, CONNOLLY MA, VALENTINE HL, et al.: Neurotrophic actions of non-immunosuppressive analogues of immunosuppressive drugs FK506, rapamycin and cyclosporin A. Nature Med. (1997) 3:421–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Provides evidence that the immunosuppressive and neurotrophic activities of FK506 are separable.
   Google Scholar
• YARDIN C, TERRO F, LESORT M, ESCLAIRE F, HUGON J: FK506 antagonizes apoptosis and c-jun protein expression in neuronal cultures. NeuroReport (1998) 9:2077–2080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BARRETT CE, BROWN WV, TURNER J, AUSTIN M, CRIQUI MH: Heart disease risk factors and hormone use in postmenopausal women. JAMA (1979) 241:2167–2169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BEHL C, WIDMANN M, TRAPP T, HOLSBOER F: 17–13 Estradiol protects neurons from oxidative stress-induced cell death in vitro. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commum. (1995) 216:473–482.
   Google Scholar
• GOODMAN Y, BRUCE AJ, CHENG B, MATTSON MP: Estrogens attenuate and corticosterone exacerbates excitotoxicity, oxidative injury, and amyloid 0-peptide toxicity in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurochem. (1996) 66:1836–1844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MOOK-JUNG I, J00 I, SOHN S, KWON HJ, HUH K, JUNG MW: Estrogen blocks neurotoxic effects of 0-amyloid (1-42) and induces neurite extension on B103 cells. Neurosci. Lett. (1997) 235:101–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DUBAL DB, KASHON ML, PETTIGREW LC, et al.: Estradiol protects against ischemic injury. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. (1998) 18:1253–1258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• XU HX, GOURAS GK, GREENFIELD JP, et al.: Estrogen reduces neuronal generation of Alzheimer 13-amyloid peptides. Nature Med. (1998) 4:447–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIBBS RB, PFAFF DW: Effects of estrogen and fimbria/fornix transection on p75NGFR andChAT expression in the medial septum and diagonal band of Broca. Exp. Neurol. (1992) 116:23–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SINGER CA, MCMILLAN PJ, DOBIE DJ, DORSA DM: Effects of estrogen replacement on choline acetyltransferase and trkA mRNA expression in the basal forebrain of aged rats. Brain Res. (1998) 789:343–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FADER AJ, HENDRICSON AW, DOHANICH GP: Estrogen improves performance of reinforced T-maze alternation and prevents the amnestic effects of scopolamine administered systemically or intrahippocampally. Neurobiol. Learn Mem. (1998) 69:225–240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHERWIN BB: Estrogen effects on cognition in menopausal women. Neurology (1997) 48:S21–S26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MIRANDA R, SOHRABJI F, SINGH M, TORAN-ALLERAND D: Nerve growth factor (NGF) regulation of estrogen receptors in explant cultures of the developing forebrain. J. Neurobiol. (1996) 31:77–87.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KAWAS C, RESNICK S, MORRISON A, et al.: A prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease: The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Neurology (1997) 48:1517–1521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •First prospective study on oestrogen and Alzheimer's disease.
   Google Scholar
• BALDERESCHI M, DI CARLO A, LEPORE V, et al.: Estrogen-replacement therapy and Alzheimer's disease in the Italian longitudinal study on ageing. Neurology (1998) 50:996–1002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHNEIDER LS, FARLOW MR, HENDERSON VW, POGODA JM: Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on response to tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (1996) 46:1580–1584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• REGISTER TC, SHIVELY CA, LEWIS CE: Expression of estrogen receptor a and 13 transcripts in female monkey hippocampus and hypothalamus. Brain Res. (1998) 788:320–322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NUTTALL ME, BRADBEER JN, STROUP GB, NADEAU DP, HOFFMAN SJ, ZHAO H, REHM S, GOWEN M: Idoxifene: a novel selective estrogen receptor modulator prevents bone loss and lowers cholesterol levels in ovariectomized rats and decreases uterine weight in intact rats. Endocrinology (1998) 139:5224–5234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARKAVERICH BM, WEBB B, DENSMORE CL, GREGORY RR: Effects of coumestrol on estrogen receptor function and uterine growth in ovariectomized rats. Environ. Health Perspect. (1995) 103:574–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZAVA DT, DUWE G: Estrogenic and antiproliferative properties of genistein and other flavonoids in human breast cancer cells in vitro. Nutr. Cancer (1997) 27:31–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DRAPER CR, EDEL MJ, DICK IM, RANDALL AG, MARTIN GB, PRINCE RL: Phytoestrogens reduce bone loss and bone resorption in oophorectomized rats. J. Nutr. (1997) 127:1795–1799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GREEN PS, GRIDLEY KE, SIMPKINS JW: Nuclear estrogen receptor-independent neuroprotection by estratrienes: a novel interaction with glutathione. Neuroscience (1998) 84:7–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Suggests that oestrogen may provide neuroprotection without binding to classical oestrogen receptors.
   Google Scholar
• DUFF K: Recent work on Alzheimer's disease transgenics. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. (1998) 9:561–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SOMMER B: Recent advances in transgenic mouse model development for Alzheimer's disease. Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs (1998) 7:2017–2025.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SMITH DH, NAKAMURA M, MCINTOSH TK, et al.: Brain trauma induces massive hippocampal neuron death linked to a surge in beta-amyloid levels in mice overexpressing mutant amyloid precursor protein. Am. J. Pathol. (1998) 153:1005-1010.297.ZHANG F, ECKMAN C, YOUNKIN S, HSIAO KK, IADECOLA C: Increased susceptibility to ischemic brain damage in transgenic mice overexpressing the amyloid precursor protein. J. Neurosci. (1997) 17:7655–7661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOWLAND DS, TRUSKO SP, SAVAGE MJ, et al.: Modulation of secreted f3-amyloid precursor protein and amyloid beta- peptide in brain by cholesterol. J Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:16576–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DURHAM RA, PARKER CA, EMMERLING MR, BISGAIER CL, WALKER LC: Effect of age and diet on the expression of 13-amyloid 1-40 and 1-42 in the brains of apolipoprotein-E-deficient mice. Neurobiol. Ageing (1998) 19:S128.
   Google Scholar
• RABER J, WONG D, BUTTINI M, et al.: Isoform-specific effects of human apolipoprotein E on brain function revealed in ApoE knockout mice: increased susceptibility of females. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:10914–10919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BORCHELT DR, RATOVITSKI T, VAN LARE Jet al.: Accelerated amyloid deposition in the brains of transgenic mice co-expressing mutant presenilin 1 and amyloid precursor proteins. Neuron (1997) 19:939–945.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VVYSS-CORAY T, MASLIAH E, MALLORY M, et al.: Amyloidogenic role of cytokine TGF-131 in transgenic mice and in Alzheimer's disease. Nature (1997) 389:603–606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauthier S (Ed.), Martin Dunitz Ltd., London, UK (1999). (In Press).
   Google Scholar