35
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Kinase targets in inflammation

&
Pages 1-25 | Published online: 25 Feb 2005

Bibliography

  • VANE JR, BOTTING RM: New insights into the mode ofaction of anti-inflammatory drugs. Inllamm. Res. (1995) 44:1–10.
  • Gallin JI, Goldstein IM, Snyderman R (Eds.), Inflammation: Basic Principals and Clinical Correlates. Raven Press, New York, NY.
  • MANNING AM, MERCURIO F: Transcription inhibitorsin inflammation. Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs (1997) 6:555–567.
  • HANDEL ML: Transcription factor AP-1 and NF-KB: where steroids meet the gold standard of anti-rheumatic drugs. Inflamm. Res. (1997) 46:282–286.
  • KARIN M: Signal transduction and gene control. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. (1991) 3:467–473.
  • STRAWN LM, SHAWVER LK: Tyrosine kinases in disease: overview of kinase inhibitors as therapeutic agents and current drugs in clinical trials. Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs (1998) 7:553–573.
  • NIXON JS, BISHOP J, BRADSHAW D et al. The design and biological properties of potent and selective inhibitors of protein kinase C. Biochem. Soc. Trans. (1992) 20:419–425.
  • HARRIS W, HILL CH, LEWIS EJ, NIXON JS, WILKINSON SE:Protein kinase C inhibitors. Drugs Future (1993) 18:727–735.
  • BLUMBERG PM, ACS G et al.: Protein kinase C in cell sig-naling: strategies for the development of selective in-hibitors. Agents Action (1995) 87–100.
  • COHEN P: The search for physiological substrates of MAP and SAP kinases in mammalian cells. Trends Cell Biol. (1997) 7:353–361.
  • •Good overview of the MAP kinase pathway.
  • DAVIS RJ: The mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathway. J. Biol. Chem. (1993) 268:14553–14556.
  • MALARKEY K, BELHAM CM, PAUL A et al.: The regulationof tyrosine kinase signaling pathways by growth fac-tor and G-protein-coupled receptors. Biochem. J. (1995) 309:361–375.
  • SAKLATVALA J, RAWLINSON LM, MARSHALL CJ, KRACHT M: Interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor activate the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinase in cul-tured cells. FEBS Lett. (1993) 334:189–192.
  • WINSTON BW, LANGE-CARTER CA, GARDNER AM, JOHN-SON GL, RICHES DW: Tumor necrosis factor rapidly ac-tivates the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade in a MAPK kinase kinase-dependent, c-Raf-independent fashion in mouse macrophages. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (1995) 92:1614–1618.
  • WINSTON BW, RICHES DW: Activation of p42 mapk/erk2 following engagement of tumor necrosis factor recep-tor. CD120a (p55) in mouse macrophages. Immunology (1995) 155:1525–1533.
  • WINSTON BW, REMIGIO LK, RICHES DWH: Preferential involvement of MEK1 in the tumor necrosis factor-a-i-nduced activation of p42 inaPk/erk2 in mouse macro-phages. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:27391–27394.
  • SZAMEL M, RESCH K: T-cell antigen receptor-induced signal-transduction pathways. Activation and func-tion of protein kinases C in T lymphocytes. Eur. J. Bio-chem. (1995) 228:1–15.
  • DUDLEY DT, PANG L, DECKER SJ, BRIDGES AJ, SALTIEL AR: A synthetic inhibitor of the mitogen-activated pro-tein kinase cascade. Proc. Natl. Acad. ScI USA (1995) 92:7686–7689.
  • ••First report of a MEK inhibitor.
  • ALESSI DR, CUENDA A, COHEN P, DUDLEY DT, SALTIELAR: PD 098059 is a specific inhibitor of the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase in vitro and in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 46:27498–27494.
  • FAVATA MF, HORIUCHI KY, MANOS EJ et al.: Identifica-tion of a novel inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 29:18623–18632.
  • ••Detailed report on the characterisation of the MEK inhibitor, U0126.
  • GRAF K, XI SP, YANG D et al.: Mitogen-activated proteinkinase activation is involved in platelet-derived growth factor-directed migration by vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension (1997) 29:334–339.
  • PANG L, SAWADA T, DECKER SJ, SALTIEL AR: Inhibitionof MAP kinase kinase blocks the differentiation of PC-12 cells induced by nerve growth factor. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 23:13585–13588.
  • CREEDON DJ, JOHNSON EM, LAWRENCE JC: Mitogen-activated protein kinase-independent pathways medi-ate the effects of nerve growth factor and cAMP on neu-ronal survival. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:20713–20718.
  • THOMAS G: MAP kinase by any other name smells justas sweet. Cell (1992) 68:3–6.
  • LAZAR DF, WIESE RJ, BRADY MJ et al.: Mitogen-activatedprotein kinase inhibition does not block the stimula-tion of glucose utilization by insulin. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:20801–2080.
  • SALE EM, ATKINSON PG, SALE GJ: Requirements of MAPkinase for differentiation of fibroblasts to adipocytes, for insulin activation of p90 S6 kinase and for insulin or serum stimulation of DNA synthesis. EMBO J (1995) 14:674–684.
  • AZPIAZU I, SALTIEL AR, DEPAOLI-ROACH AA, LAWRENCEJC: Regulation of both glycogen synthase and PHAS-I by insulin in rat skelet al muscle involves mitogen-activated protein kinase-independent and rapamycin-sensitive pathways. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:5033–5039.
  • SAKAUE H, HARA K, NOGUCHI T et al.: Ras-independentand wortmannin-sensitive activation of glycogen syn-thase by insulin in Chinese hamster ovary cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:11304–11309.
  • GABBAY RA, SUTHERLAND C, GNUDI L et al.: Insulinregulation of phophoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene expression does not require activation of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling path-way. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:1890–1897.
  • DESILVA DR, JONES EA, FAVATA M et al. Inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase blocks T cell proliferation but does not induce or prevent anergy. J. Immunol. (1998) 160:4175–4181.
  • DUMONT FJ, STARUCH MJ, FISCHER P, DASILVA C, CAMA-CHO R: Inhibition of T cell activation by pharma-cologic disruption of the MEK1/ERK MAP kinase or calcineurin signaling pathways result in differential modulation of cytokine production. J. Immunol (1998) 160:2579–2589.
  • WILKIEN D, MORTON C, NG LL, BOARDER MR: Stimu-lated mitogen-activated protein kinase is necessary but not the sufficient for the mitogenic response to angiotensin II. A role for phospholipase. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:32447–32453.
  • SERVANT MJ, GIASSON E, MELOCHE S: Inhibition ofgrowth factor-induced protein synthesis by a selective MEK inhibitor in aortic smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:16047–16052.
  • POST GR, GOLDSTEIN D, THUERAUF DJ, GLEMBOTSKI CC, BROWN JH: Dissociation of p44 and p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation from receptor-induced hypertrophy in neonatal rat ventricle myo-cytes. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:8452–8257.
  • WATTS SW: Serotonin activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in vascular smooth muscle: use of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase in-hibitor PD098059. PharmacoL Exp. Ther. (1996) 279:1541–1550.
  • KUROKI M AND O'FLAHERTY JT: Differential effects of a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor on human neutrophil responses to chemotactic factors. Biochem. Biophy. Res. Commun. (1997) 232:474–477.
  • RANE MJ, CARRITHERS SL, ARTHUR JM, KLEIN JB, MCLEISH KR: Formyl peptide receptors are coupled to multitude mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase cascades by district signal transduction pathways. J. Immunol. (1997) 159:5070–5078.
  • LESLIE CC: Properties and regulation of cytosolic phos-pholipase A2x. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:16709–16712.
  • WHEELER-JONES CPD, MAY MJ, HOULISTON RA, PEAR-SON JD: Inhibition of MAP kinase kinase (MEK) blocks endothelial PGI2 release but has no effect on von Wille-brand Factor secretion or E-selectin expression. FEBS Lett. (1996) 388:180–184.
  • HAZAN I, DANA R, GRANOT Y, LEVY R: Cytosolic phosh-olipase A2 and its mode of activation in human neutro-phils by opsonized zymosan. Biochem. J. (1997) 326:867–876.
  • ZHANG C, BAUMGARTNER RA, YAMADA K, BEAVEN JA:Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase regulates pro-duction of tumor necrosis factor-a and release of ara-chidonic acid in mast cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:13397–13402.
  • BORSCH-HAUBOLD AG, KRAMER RM, WATSON SP: Inhi-bition of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase does not impair primary activation of human platelets. Bio-chem. J. (1996) 318:207–212.
  • HWANG D, JANG BC, YU G, BOUDREAU M: Expression of mitogen-inducible cyclooxygenase induced by lipo-polysaccharide. Biochem. Pharm. (1997) 54: 87–96.
  • REISER COA, LANZ T, HOFMANN F et al.: Lysophosphati-dic acid-mediated signal-transduction pathways in-volved in the induction of the early-response genes prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 and Egr-1: a critical role for the mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 and Rho proteins. Biochem. J. (1998) 330:1107–1114.
  • LEPLEY RA, FITZPATRICK FA: Inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase blocks activation and redistribution of 5-lipoxygenase in HL-60 cells. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. (1996) 331:141–144.
  • LEE CJ, LAYTON JT, MCDONNELL PC et al.: A protein ki-nase involved in the regulation of inflammatory cyto-kine biosynthesis. Nature (1994) 372:729–746.
  • ••First report of a p38 inhibitor.
  • FOEY AD, PARRY SL, WILLIAMS LM et al.: Regulation of monocyte IL-10 synthesis by endogenous IL-1 and TNF-a: role of the p38 and p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinases. j Immunnol. (1998) 160:920–928.
  • HAMBELTON J, MCMAHON M, DEFRANCO AL: Activation of Raf-1 and mitogen-activated protein kinase in murine macrophages partially mimics lipopolysaccharide-induced signaling events. J. Exp. Med. (1995) 182:147–154.
  • SCHERLE PA, JONES EA, FAVATA MF et al.: Inhibition ofMAP kinase kinase prevents cytokine and prostaglan-din E2 production in LPS-stimulated monocytes. J. Im-munol (1998) 161:5681–5686.
  • SINGH K, BALLIGAND JL, FISCHER TA, SMITH TW, KELLY RA: Regulation of cytokine-inducible nitric oxide syn-thase in cardiac myocytes and microvascular endothe-lial cells. Role of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK/ERK2) and STAT1 alpha. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:1111–1117.
  • REDDY MP, WEBB EF, CASSATT D et al.: Pyridinyl imida-zoles inhibit the inflammatory phase of delayed type hypersensitivity reactions without affecting T-dependent immune responses. Int. J. Immunopharma-col. (1994) 16(10795–804.
  • SIMON C, JUAREZ J, NICOLSON GL, BOYD D: Effect of PD098059, a specific inhibitor of mitogen-activated pro-tein kinase kinase, on urokinase expression and in vi-tro invasion. Cancer Res. (1996) 56:5369–5374.
  • HEIMBROOK DC, HUBER HE, STIRDIVANT SM et al.: Iden-tification of potent, selective inhibitors of Raf protein kinase. Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. (1998) 39:558.
  • HAN J, LEE J-D, BIBBS L, ULEVITCH RJ: A MAP kinase tar-geted by endotoxin and hyperosmolarity in mammal-ian cells. Science (1994) 265:808–811.
  • ROUSE J, COHEN P, TRIGON S, MORGANGE M et al: Anovel kinase cascade triggered by stress and heat shock that stimulates MAPKAP kinase-2 and phospho-rylation of the small heat shock proteins. Cell (1994) 78:1027–1037.
  • FRESHNEY NW, RAWLINSON L, GUESDON F et al.: Inter-leukin 1 activates a novel protein kinase cascade that results in the phosphorylation of Hsp27. J. Cell (1994) 78:1039–1049.
  • KYRIAKIS JM, WOODGETT JR, AVRUCH J: The stress-activated protein kinases. A novel ERK subfamily re-sponsive to cellular stress and inflammatory cytoki-nes. Ann. NY Acad. ScL (1995) 766:303–319.
  • KYRIAKIS JM, AVRUCH J: Protein kinase cascades acti-vated by stress and inflammatory cytokines. BioEssays (1996) 18:567–577.
  • •In depth review of the p38 and JNK pathways.
  • JIANG Y, CHENT C, LI Z et al: Characterization of the structure and function of a new mitogen-activated pro-tein kinase (p3813). J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:17920–17926.
  • LECHNER C, AZHALKA MA, GIOT J-F et al: ERK6, a mitogen-activated protein kinase involved in C2C12 myoblast differentiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. ScL USA (1996) 93:4355–4359.
  • LI Z, JIANG Y, ULEVITCH RJ, HAN J: The primary struc-ture of p38 g: a new member of p38 group of MAP ki-nases. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (1996) 228:334–340.
  • MERTENS S, CRAXTON M, GOEDERT M: SAP kinase-3, anew member of the family of mammalian stress-activated protein kinases. FEBS Lett. (1996) 383:273–276.
  • GOEDERT M, CUENDA AL, CRAXTON M et al. Activation of the novel stress-activated protein kinase SAPK4 by cytokines and cellular stresses is mediated by SKK3 (MKK6); comparison of its substrate specificity with that of other SAP kinases. EMBOJ (1997) 16:3563–3571.
  • WANG XA, DIENER K, MANTHEY CL et al: Molecular cloning and characterizations of a novel p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:23668–23674.
  • ALLISON AC, LAFFERTY KJ, FLIRI H: Immunosuppres-sive and anti-inflammatory drugs. Ann. NY Acad. ScL (1993) 696:149–170.
  • VOTTA BJ, BERTOLINI DR: Cytokine suppressive anti-inflammatory compounds inhibit bone resorption in vitro. Bone (1994) 15:533–538.
  • LEE JC, YOUNG PR: Role of CSBP/p38/RK stress re-sponse kinase in LPS and cytokine signaling mecha-nisms. J. Leuk. Biol. (1996) 59:152–157.
  • CUENDA A, ROUSE J, DOZA YN et al: SB 203580 is a spe-cific inhibitor of a MAP kinase homologue which is stimulated by cellular stresses and interleukin-1. FEBS Lett. (1995) 364:229–233.
  • BADGER AM, GRADBEER JN, VOTTA B et al.: Pharma-cological profile of SB 203580, a selective inhibitor of cytokine suppressive binding protein/p38 kinase, in animal models of arthritis, bone resorption, endo-toxin shock and immune function. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. (1996) 279:1453–1461.
  • ••Detailed profile of the effects of SB-103580 in vivo.
  • JACKSON JR, BOLOGNESE B, HILLEGASS L et al.: Pharma-cological effects of SB220025, a selective inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, in angiogenesis and chronic inflammatory disease models. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. (1998) 284:687–692.
  • YOUNG PR, MCLAUGHLIN MM, KUMAR S et al.: Pyridinyl imidazole inhibitors of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase bind in the ATP site. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:12116–12121.
  • •Report demonstrating the mechanism of inhibition by SB203580.
  • WILSON KP, FIZGIBBON MJ, CARON PR et al.: Crystal structure of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:27696–27700.
  • WILSON KP, MCCAFFREY PG, HSIAO K et al.: The struc-tural basis for the specificity of pyridinylimidazole in-hibitors of p38 MAP kinase. Chem. Biol. (1997) 4:423–431.
  • GUM RJ, MCLAUGHLIN MM, KUMAR S et al: Acquisition of sensitivity of stress-activated protein kinases to the p38 inhibitor, SB 203580, by alteration of one or more amino acids within the TP binding pocket. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:15605–15610.
  • EYERS PA, CRAXTON M, MORRICE N, COHEN P, GO-EDERT M: Conversion of SB 203580-insensitive kinase family members to drug-sensitive forms by a single amino-acid substitution. Chem. Biol (1998) 5:321–328.
  • BENNA J, HAN J, PARK J-W et al: Activation of p38 instimulated human neutrophils: phosphorylation of the oxidase component p47Ph" by p38 and ERK but not by JNK. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. (1996) B:395–500.
  • WATERMAN WH, NIKSJUM TFP, HUANG CK et al.: Tumornecrosis factor-a-induced phosphorylation and acti-vation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 are abrogated by an inhibitor of the p38 mitogen-activated protein ki-nase cascade in human neutrophils. Biochem. J. (1996) 319:7–20.
  • KRAMER RM, ROBERTS EF, UM SL et al: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylates cytsolic phospholipase A2 (CPLA2 ) in thrombin-stimulated platelets. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:7723–27729.
  • BORSCH-HAUBOLD AG, BARTOLI F et al: Identificationof the phosphorylation of cytoslic phospholipase A2 in antgonist-stimulated human platelets and HeLA cells. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:4449–4458.
  • QIU Z, GIJON MA, DE CARVALHO MS et al: The role ofcalcium and phosphorylation of cytosolic phospholi-pase A2 in regulating arachidonic acid release in macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:8203–8211.
  • POULIOT M, BAILLARGEON J, LEE JC et al.: Inhibition ofprostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 expression in stimulated human monocytes by inhibitors of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. J. Immunol. (1997) 158:4930–4937.
  • RIDLEY SH, SARSFIELD SJ, LEE JC et al.: Actions of IL-1 areselectively controlled by p38 mitogen-activated pro-tein kinase. j Immunol. (1997) 158:3165–3173.
  • LARSEN CM, WADT KAW, JUHL LF et al: Interleukin-1-B-induced rat pancreatic islet nitric oxide synthesis requires both the p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:15294–15300.
  • GUAN Z, BUCKMAN SAY, PENTLAND AP, TEMPLETON DJ, MORRISON AR: Induction of cyclooxygenase-2 by the activated MEKK1-SEK1/MKK4-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:12901–12908.
  • USHIO-FUKAI M, ALEXANDER RW, AKERS M, GRIEND-LING KK: 38 mitogen-activated protein kinase is a criti-cal component of the redox-sensitive signaling pathways activated by angiotensin II. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:15022–15029.
  • NEMOTO S, XIANG J, HUANG S, LIN A: Induction of apoptosis by SB202190 through inhibition of p38b mitogen-activated protein kinase. J. BiolChem. (1998) 273:16415–16420.
  • WHITMARSH AJ, DAVIS RJ: Transcription factor AP-1 regulation by mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathways. J. Mol. Med. (1996) 74:589–607.
  • IP YT, DAVIS RJ: Signal transduction by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (INK)-from inflammation to develop-ment. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. (1998) 10:205–219.
  • •Thorough review of the JNK pathway.
  • WHITMARSH AJ, YANG SH, SU MSS: Role of p38 and JNKmitogen-activated protein kinases in the activation of ternary complex factors. Mol. Cell Biol. (1997) 17 (5) :2360–2371.
  • MARONEY AC, GLICKSMAN MA, BASMA AN et al.: Moto-neutron apoptosis is blocked by CEP-1347 (KT 7515), a novel inhibitor of the JNK signaling pathway. J. Neuro-scL (1998) 18:104–111.
  • BORASIO GD, HORSTMANN S, ANNESER JMH et al.: CEP-1347 (KT 7515), a JNK pathway inhibitor supports the in vitro survival of chick embryonic neurons. Neuro. Report (1998) 9:1435–1439.
  • GLICKSMAN MA, CHIU AY, DIONNE CA et al.: CEP-1347KT 7515 prevents motor neuronal programmed cell death and injury-induced dedifferentiation in vivo. J. Neurobiol (1998) 35:361–370.
  • CHEN Y, TAN T-H: Inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal ki-nase (JNK) signaling pathway by curcumin. Oncogene (1998) 17:173–178.
  • LU LH, LEE SS, HUANG HC: Epigallocatechin suppres-sion of proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells: correlation with c:jun and JNK. (1998) Br. J. Pharm. 124:1227–1237.
  • MAY MJ, GHOSH S: Rel/NF-KB and bcB proteins: an over-view. Semin. Cancer Biol. (1997) 8:63–73.
  • DIDONATO JA, HAYAKAWAM, ROTHWARF DM, ZANDI E, KARIN M: A cytokine responsive bcB kinase that acti-vates the transcription factor NF-KB. Nature (1997) 388:548–554.
  • REGNIER CH, SONG HY, GAO X et al.: Identification and characterization of an bcB kinase. Cell (1997) 90: 373–383.
  • ZANDI E, ROTHWARF DM, DELHAASE M et al.: The Ikap-paB kinase complex (IKK) contains two kinase subunits, IKKalpha and IKKbeta, necessary for IkappaB phosphorylation and NF-kappaB activation. Cell (1997) 91:243–252.
  • •Report describing the identification of IKKs.
  • MERCURIO F, ZHU H, MURRAY BW et al.: IKK-1 and IKK-2: cytokine activated IkappaB kinases essential for NF-kappaB activation. Science (1997) 278:860–866.
  • •Report describing the identification of IKKs.
  • WORONICZ JD, GAO X, CAO Z et al.: IkappaB kinase-beta: NF-kappaB activation and complex formation with IkappaB kinase-alpha and NIK. Science (1997) 278:866–869.
  • •Report describing the identification of IKKs.
  • CONNELLY MA, MARCU KB: CHUK, a new member of the helix-loop-helix and leucine zipper families of in-teracting proteins, contains a serine-threonine kinase catalytic domain. Cell. Mol. Biol. Res. (1995) 41:537–549.
  • ROTHWARF DM, ZANDI E, NATOLI G et al.: IKKy is an es-sential regulatory subunit of the la kinase complex. Nature (1998) 395:297–300.
  • YAMAOKA S, COURTOIS G, WHITESIDE ST et al.: Comple-mentation cloning of NEMO, a component of the Ikap-paB kinase complex essential for NF-kappaB activation. Cell (1998) 93:1231–1240.
  • COHEN L, HENZEL WJ, BAEUERLE P: IKAP is a scaffold protein of the la kinase complex. Nature (1998) 395:292–296.
  • ROTHE M, WONG SC, HENZEL WJ, GOEDDEL DV: A novel family of putative signal transducers associated with the cytoplasmic domain of the 75kDa tumor necrosis factor receptor. Cell (1994) 78:681–692.
  • CAO X, XIONG J, TAKEUCHI M, KURAMIA T, GOEDDEL DV: TRAF6 is a signal transducer for interleukin-1. Na-ture (1996) 383:443–446.
  • MALININ NL, BOLDIN MP, KOVALENKO AV, WALLACH D: MAP3K-related kinase involved in NF-kappaB induc-tion by TNF, CD95 and IL-1. Nature (1997) 385:540–544.
  • LING L, CAO Z, GOEDDEL DV: NF-kappaB inducing ki-nase activates IKK-alpha by phosphorylation of Ser-176. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:3792–3797.
  • NAKANO H, SINDO M, SAKON S et al: Differential regu-lation of IkappaB kinase alpha and beta by two up-stream kinases, NF-kappaB-inducing kinase and mitogen activated protein kinase/ERK kinase kinase-1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:3537–3542.
  • LEE FS, PETERS RT, DANG LC, MANIATIS T: MEKK1 acti-vates both IkappaB kinase alpha and IkappaB kinase beta. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:9319–9324.
  • ZANDI E, CHEN Y, KARIN M: Direct phosphorylation of la by IKKa and IKK0: discrimination between free and NE-KB-bound substrate. Science (1998) 281:1360–1363.
  • LI J, PEET GW, PULLEN SS et al.: Recombinant la ki-nases a and 0 are direct kinases of IxBa. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:30736–30741.
  • •Enzymatic characterisation of IKKs.
  • GELEZIUNAS R, FERRELL S, UN X et al.: Human T-cell leu-kemia virus Type I Tax induction of NF-KB involves the activation of the la kinase a (IKKa) and IKK0 cellular kinases. Mol. Cell. Biol. (1998) 18:5157–5165.
  • HARHAJ EW, SUN SC: la kinases serve as a target of CD28 signaling. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:25185–25190.
  • GHODAL, UN X, GREENE WC: The 90-kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (pp9Orsk) phosphorylates the N-terminal regu-latory domain of IkappaBalpha and stimulates its deg-radation in vitro. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:21281–21288.
  • LIU L, KWAK Y-T, BEX FV et al.: DNA-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation of kik and IxBp regulates NE-03 DNA binding properties. Mol. Cell. Biol. (1998) 18:4221–4234.
  • LIN R, BEAUPARIANT P, MAKRIS C, MEOCHE S, HISCOTT J: Phosphorylation of IxBa in the C-terminal PEST do-main by casein kinase II affects intrinsic protein stabil-ity. Mol. Cell. Biol (1996) 16:1401–1409.
  • STANGER BZ, LEDER P, LEE TH, KIM E, SEED B: RIP: a novel protein containing a death domain that interacts with Fas/APO-1 (CD95) in yeast and causes cell death. Cell (1995) 81:513–523.
  • HSU H, HUANG J, SHU HB, BAICHWAL V, GOEDDEL DV: TNF-dependent recruitment of the protein kinase RIP to the TNF receptor-1 signalling complex. Immunity (1996) 4:387–396.
  • TING AT, PIMENTEL-MUINOS FX, SEED B: IP mediates tu-mor necrosis factor receptor 1 activation of NF-kappaB but not Fas/AP0-1-initiated apoptosis. EMBOJ (1996) 15:6189–6196.
  • MCCARTHY JV, JIAN N, DIXIT VM: P2 is a novel NE-x13-activating and cell death-inducing kinase. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:16968–16975.
  • BERGMANN M, HART L, LINDSAY M, BARNES PJ, NEW-TON R: IxBa degradation and nuclear factor-KB DNA binding are insufficient for interleukin-10 and tumor necrosis factor-a-induced KB-dependent transcrip-tion. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:6607–6610.
  • WANG D, BALDWIN AS: Activation of NE-KB-dependent transcription by TNEa is mediated through phospho-rylation of Re1A/p65 on Serine 529.1 Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:29411–29416.
  • KOPP E, GHOSH S: Inhibition of NE-03 by sodium sali-cylate and aspirin. Science (1994) 265:956–959.
  • YIN M-J, YAMAMOTO Y, GAYNOR RB: The anti-inflammatory agents aspirin and salicylate inhibit the activity of la kinase-p. Nature (1998) 396:77–80.
  • ••Identification of direct inhibitors of IKKI3.
  • CHATURVEDI MM, KUMAR A, DARNEY BG et al.: Sangui-narine is a potent inhibitor of NE-KB activation, IxBa phosphorylation and degradation. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:30129–30134.
  • LENFELD J, KROUTIL M, MARSALEK E et al.: Anti-inflammatory activity of quaternary benzophenan-thridine alkaloids from Chelidonium majus. Planta Med. (1981) 43:161–165.
  • AGARWAL S, REYNOLDS MA, POU S et al.: The effect of sanguinarine on human peripheral blood neutrophil viability and functions. Oral Microbiol. Immunol (1991) 6:51–61.
  • HEHNER SP, HEINRICH M, BORK PM et al.: Sesquiterpene lactones specifically inhibit activation of NF-KB by pre-venting degradation of bcB-a and bcB-13. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:1288–1297
  • PIERCE JW, SCHOENLEBER R, JESMOK G et al.: Novel in-hibitors of cytokine-induced kik phosphorylation and endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression show anti-inflammatory effects in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:21096–21103.
  • SULLIVAN RW, BIGAM CG, ERDMAN PE et al: 2-Chloro-4-(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidine-5-N-(3'5'-bis(trifluoro-methyl) phenyfi-carboxamide: a potent inhibitor of NF-KB and AP-1-mediated gene expression identified using solution phase combinatorial chemistry. J. Med. Chem. (1998) 41:413–419.
  • GOLDMAN ME, RANSONE LJ, ANDERSON DW et al.: SP100030 is a novel T cell specific transcription factor inhibitor that possesses immunosuppressive activity in vivo. Transplant. Proc. (1996) 28:3106–3109.
  • HAWKINS PT, WELCH H, MCGREGOR A et al.: Signaling via phosphoinositide 3011kinases. Biochem. Soc. Trans. (1997) 25:1147–1151.
  • •Thorough review of the PI 3-K pathway.
  • MARTE BM, DOWNWARD J: PKB/Akt: Connecting phos-phoinositide 3-kinase to cell survival and beyond. Trends Biochem. Sci. (1997) 22:355–358.
  • ALESSI DR, COHEN P: Mechanism of activation and function of protein kinase B. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. (1998) 8:55–62.
  • STEPHENS L, ANDERSON K, STOKOE D et al: Protein ki-nase B kinases that mediate phosphatidylinositol 3, 4, 5-triphosphate-dependent activation of protein ki-nase B. Science (1998) 279:710–714.
  • ALESSI DR, DEAK M, CASAMAYOR A et al.: 3-Phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1): structural and functional homology with the Drosophila DSTPK61 kinase. Curr. Biol. (1997) 7:776–789.
  • VAN WEEREN PC, DE BRUYN KM, DE VRIES-SMITHS AM, VAN LINT J, BURGERING BM: Essential role for protein kinase B (PKB) in insulin-induced glycogen synthesis kinase 3 inactivation. Characterization of dominant-negative mutant of PKB. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:13150–13156.
  • CROSS DA, ALESSI DR, COHEN P, JELKOVICH M, HEM-MINGS BA: Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 by insulin mediated by protein kinase B. Nature (1995) 378:785–789.
  • BURGERING BM, COFFER PJ: Protein kinase B (c-Akt) in phosphatidylinosito1-3-011 kinase signal transduc-tion. Nature (1995) 376:599–602.
  • ALESSI DR, KOZLOWSKI MT, WENG QP, MORRICE N, AVRUCH J: 3-Phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) phosphorylates and activates the p70 S6 kinase in vivo and in vitro. Curr. Biol. (1998) 8:69–81.
  • LE GOOD JA, ZIEGLER WH, PAREKH et al.: Protein kinase C isotypes controlled by phosphoinositide 3-kinase through the protein kinase PDK1. Science (1998) 281:2042–2045.
  • WELCH H, EGUINOA A, STEPHENS LR, HAWKINS PT: Pro-tein kinase B and rac are activated in parallel within a phosphatidylinositide 3011-kinase-controlled signal-ing pathway. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:11248–11256.
  • HOOSHMAND-RAD R, CLAESSON-WELSH L, ERNNDY-TOM S et al.: Involvement of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase and rac in platelet derived growth factor in-duced actin reorganization and chemotaxis. Exp. Cell Res. (1997) 234:434–441.
  • HAN J, LUBY-PHELPS K, DAS B et al.: Role of substrates and products of PI 3-kinase in regulating activation of Rae-related guanosine triphosphates by Vav. Science (1998) 279:558–560.
  • DATTA SR, DUDEK H, TAO et al.: Akt phosphorylation of BAD couples survival signals to the cell-intrinsic death machinery. Cell (1997) 91:231–241.
  • ARCARO A, WYMANN MP: Wortmannin is a potent phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor: The role of phosphatidylinositol 3, 4, 5-triphosphate in neutrophil responses. Biochem. J. (1993) 296:297–301.
  • YANO H, NAKANISHI S, KIMURA et al.: Inhibition of his-tamine secretion by wortmannin through the block-ade of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in RBL-2113 cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1993) 268:25846–25856.
  • VLAHOS CJ, MATTER WF, HUI KY, BROWN RF: A specific inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, 244-morpholiny1)-8-pheny1-41-1-1-benzopyran-4-one (LY294002). J. Biol. Chem. (1994) 269:5241–5248.
  • BRUNN GJ, WILLIAMS J, SABERS C et al.: Direct inhibition of the signaling functions of the mammalian target of rapamycin by the phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibi-tors, wortmannin and LY294002. EMBO J. (1996) 15:5256–5267.
  • YAO R AND COOPER GM: Requirement for phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase in the prevention of apoptosis by nerve growth factor. Science (1995) 267:2003–2006.
  • KULIK G, KLIPPEL A, WEBER MJ: Anti-apoptotic signal-ling by the insulin-like growth factor I receptor, phos-phatidylinosito13-kinase and AKT. Mol Cell. Biol. (1997) 17:1595–1606.
  • KAUFFMANN-ZEH A, RODRIGUEZ-VICIANA P, ULRICH E et al.: Suppression of c-myc-induced apoptosis by ras signalling through PI(3)K and PKB. Nature (1997) 385:544–548.
  • KHWAJA A, RODRIGUEZ-VICIANA P, WENNSTROM S, WARNE PH, DOWNWARD J: Matrix adhesion and ras transformation both activate a phosphoinositide 3-011 kinase and protein kinase B/AKT cellular survival pathway. EMBO J (1997) 16:2783–2793.
  • SHI J, CINEK T, TRUITT KE, IMBODEN JB: Wortmannin, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor, blocks antigen-mediated but not CD3 monoclonal antibody-induced activation of murine CD4+ T cells. J. Immunol. (1997) 158:4688–4695.
  • PARRY RV, REIF K, SMITH G et al.: Ligation of the T cell costimulatory receptor CD28 activates the serine-threonine protein kinase protein kinase B. Eur. J. Im-munol (1997) 27:2495–2501.
  • WILSON A, SANSOM D, PARRY R, WESTWICK J, WARD S: The phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin inhibits CD28-meidated T cell costimulation. Biochem. Soc. Trans. (1995) 23:282S.
  • HAUSLER P, PAPOFF G, ERAMO A et al.: Protection of CD95-mediated apoptosis by activation of phosphati-dylinositide 3-kinase and protein kinase B. Eur. J. Im-munol (1998) 28:57–69.
  • KARNITZ LM, BURNS LA, SUTOR SL, BLENIS J, ABRAHAM RT: Interleukin-2 triggers a novel phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase dependent MEK activation pathway. Mol Biol. (1995) 15:3049–3057.
  • PADMORE L, RADDA GK, KNOX KA: Wortmannin-mediated inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity triggers apoptosis in normal and neoplastic B lymphocytes which are in cell cycle. Int. Immunol (1996) 8:585–594.
  • SUE-A-QUAN AK, FIALKOW L, VLAHOS CJ et al.: Inhibi-tion of neutrophil oxidative burst and granule secre-tion by wortmannin: Potential role of MAP kinase and renaturable kinases. J. Cell. Physic)]. (1997) 172:94–108.
  • NIGGLI V, KELLER H: The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin markedly reduces che-motactic peptide-induced locomotion and increases in cytoskelet al actin in human neutrophils. Eur. J. Phar-macol (1997) 335:43–52.
  • COFFER PJ, GEIJSEN N, M'RABET L et al.: Comparison of the roles of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signal transduction in neutrophil effector function. Biochem. 1 (1998) 329:121–130.
  • CAPODICI C, HANFT S, FEOKTISTOV M, PILLINGER MH: Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase mediates chemoattractant-stimulated, CD11b/CD18-dependent cell-cell adhesion of human neutrophils: Evidence for an ERK-independent pathway. J. Immunol. (1998) 160:1901–1909.
  • KNALL C, WORTHEN GS, JOHNSON GL: Interleukin 8-stimualted phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase activity regulates the migration of human neutrophils inde-pendent of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases. Proc. Natl. Acad. ScL USA (1997) 94:3052–3057.
  • SCHNYDER B, MEUNIER PC, CAR BD: Inhibition of ki-nases impairs neutrophil activation and killing of Staphylococcus aureus. Biochem. J. (1998) 331:489–495.
  • HIRASAWA N, SATO Y, YOMIGIDA S, MUE S, OHUCHI K: Role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in degranula-tion induced by IgE-dependent and independent mechanisms in rat basophilic RBL-2113 (m0 cells. Cell Signal (1997) 9:305–310.
  • PENDL GG, PRIESCHL EE, THUMB W et al.: Effects of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase inhibitors on degranu-lation and gene induction in allergically triggered mouse mast cells. In] Arch. Allergy Immunol. (1997) 112:392–399.
  • MARQUARDT DL, ALONGI JL, WAKLKER LL: The phos-phatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin blocks mast cell exocytosis but not IL-6 production. J. Immunol (1996) 156:1942–1945.
  • COFFER PJ, SCHWEIZER RC, DUBOIS GR et al.: Analysis of signal transduction pathways in human eosinophils activated by chemoattractants and the T helper 2 de-rived cytokines interleukin-4 and interleukin-5. Blood (1998) 91:2547–2557.
  • CLOSSE A, HAEFLIGER W, HAUSER D: 2, 3 dihydrobenzofuran-2-ones: a new class of highly po-tent anti-inflammatory agents. J. Med. Chem. (1981) 24:1465–1471.
  • WIESINGER D, GUBLER HU, HAEFLIGER W, HAUSER D et al.: Anti-inflammatory activity of the new mould me-tabolite 11-desacetoxy-wortmannin and of some of its derivatives. Experientia. (1974) 30:135–136.
  • THOMAS G, HALL MN: TOR signaling and control of cell growth. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. (1997) 9:782–787.
  • DUMONT FJ, SU Q: Mechanism of action of the immu-nosuppressant rapamycin. Life Sciences (1996) 58:373–395.
  • ABRAHAM RT, WIEDERRECHT GJ: Immunopharmacol-ogy of rapamycin. Ann. Rev. Immunol (1996) 14:483–510.
  • •Good review of the effects of rapamycin.
  • WITHERS DJ, OMENS DM, NAVE BT: Expression, en-zyme activity, and subcellular localization of mammal-ian target of rapamycin in insulin-responsive cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. (1997) 241:704–709.
  • CHUNG J, KUO CJ, CRABTREE GR, BLENIS J: Rapamycin-FKBP specifically blocks growth-dependent activation of and signaling by the 70 kd S6 protein kinases. Cell (1992) 69:1227–1236.
  • HASHEMOLHOSSEINI S, NAGAMINE Y, MORLEY SJ et al.: Rapamycin inhibition of the G1 to S transition is medi-ated by effects on cyclin D1 mRNA and protein stabil-ity. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:14424–14429.
  • DUMONT FJ, STARUCH MJ, KOPRAK SL, MELINO MR, SI-GAL NH: Distinct mechanisms of suppression of murine T cell activation by the related macrolides FK-506 and rapamycin. J. Immunol (1990) 144:251–258.
  • KUO CJ, CHUNG J, FIORENTINO DF et al.: Rapamycin se-lectively inhibits interleukin-2 activation of p70 S6 ki-nase. Nature (1992) 358:70–73.
  • AAGAARD-TILLERY KM, JELINEK DF: Inhibition of hu-man B lymphocyte cell cycle progression and differen-tiation by rapamycin. Cell. Immunol. (1994) 156:493–507.
  • HATFIELD SM, MYNDERSE JS, ROEHM NW: Rapamycin and FK506 differentially inhibit mast cell cytokine production and cytokine-induced proliferation and act as reciprocal antagonists. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1992) 261:970–976.
  • FRANCAVILLA A, CARR BI, STARZL TE et al.: Effects of ra-pamycin on cultured hepatocyte proliferation and gene expression. Hepatology (1992) 15:871–877.
  • LUO HY, CHEN HF, DALOZE P et al.: In vitro IgE produc-tion by interleukin 4-stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells is suppressed by rapamycin. Immunol. Immunopathol (1991) 61:410–420.
  • LUO H, CHEN H, DALOZE P et al: Inhibition of in vitro immunoglobulin production by rapamycin. Trans-plantation (1992) 53:1071–1076.
  • DUMONT FJ, ALTMEYER A, KASTNER C et al.: Relation-ship between multiple biologic effects of rapamycin and the inhibition of pp70S6 protein kinase activity: analysis in mutant clones of a T cell lymphoma. J. Im-munol (1994) 152:992–1003.
  • TAYLOR-FISHWICK DA, KAHAN M, HIESTAND P, RITTER MA, FOXWELL BM: Evidence that rapamycin has differ-ential effects of IL-4 function. Multiple IL-4 signaling pathways and implications for in vivo use. Transplanta-tion (1993) 56:368–374.
  • BLAZAR BR, TAYLOR PA, PANOSKALTSIS-MORTARI A, VALLERA DA: Rapamycin inhibits the generation of graft-versus-host disease and graft-versus-leukemia--causing T cells by interfering with the production of Thl or Thl cytotoxic cytokines. J. Immunol (1998) 160:5355–5365.
  • ISHIZUKA T, SAKATA N, JOHNSON GL, GELFAND EW, TE-RADA N: Rapamycin potentiates dexamethasone-induced apoptosis and inhibits JNK activity in lym-phoblastoid cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. (1997) 230:386–391.
  • MARX SO, JAYARAMAN T, GO LO, MARKS AR: Rapamycin-FKBP inhibits cell cycle regulators of pro-liferation in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circulation Res. (1995) 76:412–417.
  • POON M, MARX SO, GALLO R et al.: Rapamycin inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell migration. J. Clin. Invest. (1996) 98:2277–2283.
  • KAHAN BD, CHANG JY, SEHGAL SN: Preclinical evalua-tion of a new potent immunosuppressive agent, rapa-mycin. Transplantation (1991) 52:185–191.
  • STEPKOWSKI SM, TIAN L, WANG ME et al.: Sirolimus in transplantation. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsz) (1997) 45:383–390.
  • KELLY PA, GRUBER SA, BEHBOD F, KAHAN BD: Siro-limus, a new, potent immunosuppressive agent. Phar-macotherapy (1997) 17:1148–1156.
  • PELLEGRINI S, DUSANTER-FOURT I: The structure, regu-lation and function of the Janus kinases (JAKs) and the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATO. Eur. j Biochem. (1997) 248:615–633.
  • THOMIS DC, BERG LJ: The role of Jak3 in lymphoid de-velopment, activation, and signaling. Curr. Opin. Im-munol (1997) 9:541–547.
  • PARK SY, SAIJO K, TAKAHASHI T et al.: Developmental defects of lymphoid cells in Jak3 kinase-deficient mice. Immunity (1995) 3:771–782.
  • NOSAKA T, VAN DEURSEN JM, TRIPP RA et al: Defective lymphoid development in mice lacking Jak3. Science (1995) 270:800–802.
  • THOMIS DC, GURNIAK CB, TIVOL E, SHARPE AH, BERG LJ: Defects in B lymphocyte maturation and T lympho-cyte activation in mice lacking Jak3. Science (1995) 270:794–797.
  • VON FREEDEN-JEFFRY U, VIEIRA P, LUCIAN LA et al: Lymphopenia in interleukin (IL)-7 gene-deleted mice identifies IL-7 as a nonredundant cytokine. J. Exp. Med. (1995) 181:1519–1526.
  • PESCHON JJ, MORRISSEY PJ, GRABSTEIN KH et al.: Early lymphocyte expansion is severely impaired in inter-leukin 7 receptor-deficient mice. J. Exp. Med. (1994) 180:1955–1960.
  • SAIJO K, PARK SY, ISHIDA Y, ARASE H, SAITO T: Crucial role of Jak3 in negative selection of self-reactive T cells. J. Exp. Med. (1997) 185:351–356.
  • THOMIS DC, LEE W, BERG LJ: T cells from Jak3-deficient mice have intact TCR signaling, but increased apopto-sis. j Immunol (1997) 159:4708–4719.
  • NAKAJIMA H, SHORES EW, NOGUCHI M, LEONARD WJ: The common cytokine receptor gamma chain plays an essential role in regulating lymphoid homeostasis. J. Exp. Med. (1997) 185:189–195.
  • AKBAR AN, BORTH WICK NJ, WICKREMASINGHE RG et al.: Interleukin-2 receptor common gamma-chain signal-ing cytokines regulate activated T cell apoptosis in re-sponse to growth factor withdrawal: selective induction of anti-apoptotic (bc1-2, bc1-xL) but not pro-apoptotic (bax, bc1-xS) gene expression. Eur. J. Immu-nol (1996) 26:294–299.
  • KNEITZ B, HERRMANN T, YONEHARA S, SCHIMPL A: Nor-mal clonal expansion but impaired Fas-mediated cell death and anergy induction in interleukin-2-deficient mice. Eur. j Immunol (1995) 25:2572–2577.
  • SUZUKI H, KUNDIG TM, FURLONGER C et al.: Deregu-lated T cell activation and autoimmunity in mice lack-ing interleukin-2 receptor beta. Science (1995) 268:1472–1476.
  • SADLACK B, LOHLER J, SCHORLE H et al.: Generalized autoimmune disease in interleukin-2-deficient mice is triggered by an uncontrolled activation and prolifera-tion of CD4+ T cells. Eur. J. Immunol (1995) 25:3053–3059.
  • RUSSELL SM, TAYEBI N, NAKAJIMA H et al.: Mutation of Jak3 in a patient with SCID: essential role of Jak3 in lymphoid development. Science (1995) 270:797–800.
  • MACCHI P, VILLA A, GILLANI S et al: Mutations of Jak-3 gene in patients with autosomal severe combined im-mune deficiency (SCID). Nature (1995) 377:65–68.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.