15
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Transgenic and therapeutic targeting of smooth muscle cells and the challenges presented by phenotypic diversity

, , , , &
Pages 279-306 | Published online: 25 Feb 2005

Bibliography

  • OLSON EN, KLEIN WH: bHLH Factors in muscle development: dead lines and commitments, what to leave in and what to leave out. Genes Dev. (1994) 8:1–8.
  • OWENS GK: Regulation of differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Physiol. Rev. (1995) 75:487–517.
  • BLACK BL, OLSON EN: Transcriptional control of muscle development by myocyte enhancer factor-2(MEF2) proteins. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. (1998) 14:167–196.
  • BUCKINGHAM M: Molecular biology of muscle develop-ment. Cell (1994) 78:15–21.
  • JAMES J, ROBBINS J: Molecular remodeling of cardiac contractile function. Am. J. Physic]. Heart Circ. Physiol. (1997) 273:H2105–H2118.
  • ••See annotation for reference 6.
  • JAMES JF, HEWETT TE, ROBBINS J: Cardiac physiology in transgenic mice. Circ. Res. (1998) 82:407–415.
  • ••Comprehensive reviews of cardiac transgenesis, develop-ment, anatomy and physiology in the mouse.
  • VON ARX P, BANTLE S, SOLDATI T, PERRIARD JC: Dominant negative effect of cytoplasmic actin isopro-teins on cardiomyocyte cytoarchitecture and function. J. Cell Biol. (1995) 131:1759.
  • ••Interesting report describing the effects of non-homologousactin isoforms on cardiomyocyte structure and function.
  • DeN0FRIO D, HOOCK TC, HERMAN IM: Functionalsorting of actin isoforms in microvascular pericytes. Cell Biol. (1989) 109:191–202.
  • QU G, YAN H, STRAUCH AR: Actin isoform utilizationduring differentiation and remodeling of BC3H1 myogenic cells. J. Cell. Biochem. (1997) 67:514–527.
  • RONNOV-JESSEN L, PETERSEN OW: A function for filamentous a-smooth muscle actin: retardation of motility in fibroblasts. J. Cell Biol. (1996) 134:67–80.
  • HILL MA, GUNNING P: Beta and gamma actin mRNAsare differentially located within myoblasts. J. Cell Biol. (1993) 122:825–832.
  • LLOYD C, SCHEVZOV G, GUNNING P: Transfection of non-muscle 13-and gamma-actin genes into myoblasts elicits different feedback regulatory responses from endogenous actin genes. J. Cell Biol. (1992) 117:787–797.
  • SCHEVZOV G, LLOYD C, GUNNING P: High level expres-sion of transfected 13-and gamma-actin genes differen-tially impacts on myoblast cytoarchitecture. J. Cell Biol. (1992) 117:775–785.
  • STROMER MH: Immunocytochemistry of the muscle cell cytoskeleton. Microsc. Res. Tech. (1995) 31:95–105.
  • MURPHY RA: Special topic: contraction in smooth muscle cells. Introduction. Annu. Rev. Physiol. (1989) 51:275–283.
  • SOMLYO AP: Myosin isoforms in smooth muscle: howmay they affect function and structure. J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil. (1993) 14:557–563.
  • HATHAWAY DR, MARCH KL, LASH JA, ADAM LP, WILENSKY RL: Vascular smooth muscle: a review of the molecular basis of contractility. Circulation (1991) 83:382–390.
  • KURIYAMA H, KITAMURA K, ITOH T, INOUE R: Physio-logical features of visceral smooth muscle cells, with special reference to receptors and ion channels. Physiol. Rev. (1998) 78:811–920.
  • STRAUCH AR, BERMAN MD, MILLER HR: Substrate-associated macromolecules promote cytodifferentia-tion of BC3H1 myogenic cells. J. Cell. Physiol. (1991) 146:337–348.
  • LEE SH, YAN H, REESER JC, DILLMAN JM, STRAUCH AR:Proteoglycan biosynthesis is required in BC3H1 myogenic cells for modulation of vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene expression in response to microenvironmental signals. J. Cell. Physiol. (1995) 164:172–186.
  • CLOWES AW, CLOWES MM, KOCHER O et al. Arterial smooth muscle cells in vivo: relationship between actin isoform expression and mitogenesis and their modulation by heparin. J. Cell Biol. (1988) 107:1939–1945.
  • ••First report of functional modulation of smooth muscle actinmRNA expression in vivo.
  • LIAU G, JANAT MF, WIRTH PJ: Regulation of a-smoothmuscle actin and other polypeptides in proliferating and density-arrested vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Cell. Physic)]. (1990) 142:236–246.
  • SCHWARTZ SM, REIDY MA: Common mechanisms ofproliferation of smooth muscle in atherosclerosis and hypertension. Human Pathol. (1987) 18:240–247.
  • SKALLI O, PELTE MF, PECLET MC et al. a-Smooth muscle actin, a differentiation marker of smooth muscle cells, is present in microfilamentous bundles of pericytes. Histochem. Cytochem. (1989) 37:315–321.
  • KOCHER O, GABBIANI G: Analysis of a-smooth-muscle actin mRNA expression in rat aortic smooth-muscle cells using a specific cDNA probe. Differentiation (1987) 34:201–209.
  • KOCHER O, GABBIANI F, GABBIANI G et al. Phenotypic features of smooth muscle cells during the evolution of experimental carotid artery intimal thickening. Biochemical and morphologic studies. Lab. Invest. (1991) 65:459–470.
  • ••Evaluation of smooth muscle actin mRNA levels in vascularlesions.
  • KAUFMAN MH: The Atlas of Mouse Development. AcademicPress, London, UK (1992).
  • MCHUGH KM, CRAWFORD K, LESSARD JL: A comprehen-sive analysis of developmental and tissue-specific expression of the isoactin multigene family in the rat. Dev. Biol. (1991) 148:442–458.
  • •Detailed analysis of actin isoform mRNA levels in the developing rat embryo.
  • ROSS R: Atherosclerosis: a defense mechanism gone awry. Am. J. Pathol. (1993) 143:987–1002.
  • ROSS R: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990s. Nature (1993) 362:801–809.
  • BORNFELDT KE, GRAVES LM, RAINES EW et al. Sphingosine-1-phosphate inhibits PDGF-induced chemotaxis of human arterial smooth muscle cells: spatial and temporal modulation of PDGF chemotactic signal transduction. J. Cell Biol. (1995) 130:193–206.
  • SKALLI O, GABBIANI G: The biology of the myofibro-blast. Relation to wound contraction and fibrocontrac-tive diseases. In: The Molecular and Cellular Biology of Wound Repair. Clark RAF, Henson PM (Eds.), Plenum Publishing Corp. New York, USA (1988):373–401.
  • ••An important, authoritative review of myofibroblast cellbiology.
  • KULLO I, SIMARI RD, SCHWARTZ RS: Vascular gene transfer. From bench to bedside. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1999) 19:196–207.
  • CAREY DJ: Control of growth and differentiation of vascular cells by extracellular matrix proteins. Annu. Rev. Physiol. (1991) 53:161-177. 35.Receptors for Extracellular Matrix. McDonald JA, Mecham RP (Eds.), Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, USA (1991).
  • MECHAM RP, WHITEHOUSE LA, WRENN DS et al. Smooth muscle-mediated connective tissue remodelling in pulmonary hypertension. Science (1987) 237:423–426.
  • •Report showing that smooth muscle cells release soluble mediators of elastin gene expression.
  • CHEN Y, BORNFELDT KE, ARNER A et al. Increase in insulin-like growth Factor I in hypertrophying smooth muscle. Am. J. Physiol. (1994) 266:E224–229.
  • SCHWARTZ SM, DEBLOIS D, O'BRIEN ERM: The intima-soil for atherosclerosis and restenosis. Circ. Res. (1995) 77:445–465.
  • SCHWARTZ SM: Smooth muscle migration in athero-sclerosis and restenosis. J. Clin. Invest. (1997) 99:2814–2817.
  • •An interesting overview of cell proliferation-independent aspects of arteriosclerosis.
  • HERMAN IM: Actin isoforms. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. (1993) 5:48.
  • DE RUITER MC, POELMANN RE, VAN MUNSTEREN JC et al. Embryonic endothelial cells transdifferentiate into mesenchymal cells expressing smooth muscle actin in vivo and in vitro. Circ. Res. (1997) 80:444–451.
  • ••Injury-activation of endothelial cells can promote expres-sion of smooth muscle-specific actin.
  • ABD-EL BASSET E, FEDEROFT S: Immunolocalization of the alpha isoform of smooth muscle actin in mouse astroglia in cultures. Neuroscience Lett. (1991) 125:117–120.
  • LECAIN E, ALLIOT F, LAINE B, CALAS B, PESSAC B: Alphaisoform of smooth muscle actin is expressed in astrocytes in vitro and in vivo. J. Neuroscience Res. (1991) 28:601–606.
  • HIRSCHI KK, D'AMORE PA: Pericytes in the microvascu-lature. Cardiovasc. Res. (1996) 32:687–698.
  • HIRSCHI KK, ROHOVSKY SA, D'AMORE PA: PDGF, TGF-I3, and heterotypic cell-cell interactions mediate endothelial cell-induced recruitment of 10T1/2 cells and their differentiation to a smooth muscle fate. J. Cell Biol. (1998) 141:805–814.
  • COGAN JG, SUN S, STOFLET ES et al. Plasticity of vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene transcription. Characterization of multiple, single-, and double-strand specific DNA-binding proteins in myoblasts and fibroblasts. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:11310–11321.
  • ••See annotation for reference 47.
  • SUN S, STOFLET ES, COGAN JG, STRAUCH AR, GETZ MJ: Negative regulation of the vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene in fibroblasts and myoblasts: disruption of enhancer function by sequence-specific single-stranded-DNA-binding proteins. Molec. Cell. Biol. (1995) 15:2429–2436.
  • ••First reports of the involvement of TEF1, MSY1, andPURa/PURO in regulation of the mouse smooth muscle a-actin gene.
  • HAUTMANN MB, MADSEN CS, MACK CP, OWENS GK: Substitution of the degenerate smooth muscle (SM) a-actin CC(A/T-rich)6GG elements with c-fos serum response elements results in increased basal expres-sion but relaxed SM cell specificity and reduced angiotensin II inducibility. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273:8398–8406.
  • SWARTZ EA, JOHNSON AD, OWENS GK: Two MCAT elements of the SM a-actin promoter function differ-entially in SM vs. non-SM cells. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. (1998) 275:C608–C618.
  • KELM RJ, JR., ELDER PK, STRAUCH AR, GETZ MJ:Sequence of cDNAs encoding components of vascular actin single-stranded DNA-binding factor 2 establish identity to Pura and Pur 13. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:26727–26733.
  • HANAHAN D: Signaling vascular morphogenesis andmaintenance. Science (1997) 277:48–50.
  • •Useful review of tyrosine receptor kinases, angiopoietins, and vasculogenesis.
  • CARMELIET P, COLLEN D: Genetic analysis of bloodvessel formation-role of endothelial versus smooth muscle cells. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. (1997) 7:271–281.
  • CARMELIET P, COLLEN D: Molecular analysis of bloodvessel formation and disease. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. (1997) 273:H2091–H2104.
  • FOLKMAN J, D'AMORE PA: Blood vessel formation: whatis its molecular basis? Cell (1996) 87:1153–1155.
  • •Concise overview of data and presentation of a model for endothelial cell-mesenchymal cell interactions during vasculogenesis.
  • BECK L, JR., D'AMORE PA: Vascular development:cellular and molecular regulation. FASEB J. (1997) 11:365–373.
  • BERGWERFF M, VERBERNE ME, DE RUITER MC, POELMANN RE, GITTENBERGER-DE GROOT AC: Neural crest contribution to the developing circulatory system. Implications for vascular morphology? Circ. Res. (1998) 82:221–231.
  • ••See annotation for reference 59.
  • MIKAWA T: Retroviral targeting of FGF and FGFR in cardiomyocytes and coronary vascular cells during heart development. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1995) 752:506–515.
  • ••See annotation for reference 59.
  • MIKAWA T, GOURDIE RG: Pericardial mesoderm generates a population of coronary smooth muscle cells migrating into the heart along with in-growth of the epicardial organ. Dev. Biol. (1996) 174:221-232.
  • ••See annotation for reference 59.
  • MIKAWA T, FISCHMAN DA: Retroviral analysis of cardiac morphogenesis: discontinuous formation of coronary vessels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1992) 89:9504–9508.
  • ••Four studies that utilise retroviral tagging techniques to trackthe fates of vascular and myocardial progenitor cells in developing avian embryos.
  • FRID MG, ALDASHEV AA, DEMPSEY EC, STENMARK KR:Smooth muscle cells isolated from discrete compart-ments of the mature vascular media exhibit unique phenotypes and distinct growth capabilities. Circ. Res. (1997) 81:940–952.
  • GADSON PF, ROSSIGNOL C, MCCOY J, ROSENQUIST TH:Expression of elastin, smooth muscle alpha-actin, and c-jun as a function of the embryonic lineage of vascular smooth muscle cells. In vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. (1993) 26A:773–781.
  • ROSS R: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis-anupdate. New Engl. J. Med. (1986) 314:488–500.
  • ARMSTRONG AT, STRAUCH AR, STARLING RC, SEDMAK DD, OROSZ CG: Morphometric analysis of neointimal formation in murine cardiac allografts. Transplantation (1997) 63:941–947.
  • ••See annotation for reference 64.
  • ARMSTRONG AT, STRAUCH AR, STARLING RC, SEDMAK DD, OROSZ CG: Morphometric analysis of neointimal formation in murine cardiac allografts. II. Rate and location of lesion formation. Transplantation (1997) 64:322–328.
  • ••First reports of discontinuous coronary artery lesionformation in the transplanted murine heart.
  • MIKAWA T: Cardiac lineages. In: Heart Development.Harvey RP, Rosenthal N (Eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, USA (1999):19–33.
  • KIM S, IP HS, LU MM, CLENDENIN C, PARMACEK MS: A serum response factor-dependent transcriptional regulatory program identifies distinct smooth muscle cell sublineages. Molec. Cell. Biol. (1997) 17:2266–2278.
  • ••One of the first reports to identify transcriptional regulatoryelements in the SM22a promoter using transgenic mouse models.
  • LENZ J, OKENGUIST S, LOSARDO J, HAMILTON K, DOETSCH P: Identification of a mammalian nuclear factor and human cDNA encoded proteins that recognize DNA containing multiple apurinic sites. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1990) 87:3396–3400.
  • CLEAVER O, KRIEG PA: Molecular mechanisms of vascular development. In: Heart Development. Harvey RP, Rosenthal N (Eds.) Academic Press, San Diego, USA (1999):221–252.
  • ••Comprehensive overview of molecular signalling duringarterial development.
  • SURI C, JONES PF, PATAN S et al. Requisite role of angiopoietin-1, a ligand for the TIE2 receptor, duringembryonic angiogenesis. Cell (1996) 87:1171–1180.
  • ••Important paper describing the failure of angiopoietin 1knock-out mice to recruit smooth muscle and pericyte progenitor cells during vasculogenesis.
  • SCHATTEMAN G, MOTLEY ST, EFFMANN EL, BOWEN-POPE DF: Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha subunit deleted patch mouse exhibits severe cardiovascular dysmorphogenesis. Teratology (1995) 51:351–366.
  • BOSTRUM H, WILLETTS K, PEKNY P et al. PDGF-Asignaling is a critcal event in lung alveolar myofibro-blast development and alveogenesis. Cell (1996) 85:863–873.
  • SHI CW, RUSSELL ME, BIANCHI C, NEWELL JB, HABER E: Murine model of accelerated transplant arterioscle-rosis. Circ. Res. (1994) 75:199–207.
  • ••One of the first reports to utilise immune-compromised, transgenic mouse lines as recipients in organ transplant studies.
  • SOLWAY J, SELTZER J, SAMAHA FF et al. Structure and expression of a smooth muscle cell-specific gene, SM22a. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:13460–13469.
  • ••First functional study of SM22a cDNA and genomicsequences in smooth muscle tissues and transfected cells.
  • FIRULLI AB, MIANO JM, BI WZ et al. Myocyte enhancer binding factor-2 expression and activity in vascular smooth muscle cells-association with the activated phenotype. Circ. Res. (1996) 78:196–204.
  • ZALEWSKI A, SHI Y: Vascular myofibroblasts-lessons from coronary repair and remodeling. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1997) 17:417–422.
  • •See annotation for reference 77.
  • PELS K, LABINAZ M, HOFFERT C, O'BRIEN ER: Adventitial angiogensis early after coronary angioplasty. Correla-tion with arterial remodeling. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1999) 19:229–238.
  • •See annotation for reference 77.
  • TJURMIN AV, ANANYEVA NM, SMITH EP et al. Studies on the histogenesis of myxomatous tissue of human coronary lesions. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1999) 19:83–97.
  • •Three reports describing new roles for smooth muscle-like stromal cells in arterial injury and repair.
  • GALMICHE MC, KOTELIANSKY VE, BRIERE J, HERVE P, CHARBORD P: Stromal cells from human long-term marrow cultures are mesenchymal cells that differen-tiate following a vascular smooth muscle differentia-tion pathway. Blood (1993) 82:66–76.
  • MURRY CE, GIPAYA CT, BARTOSEK T, BENDITT EP, SCHVVARTZ SM: Monoclonality of smooth muscle cells in human atherosclerosis. Am. J. Pathol (1997) 151:697–706.
  • •Recent evidence to support Benditt's monoclonal theory of atherogenesis in the human.
  • OLSON EN, CALDWELL KC, GORDON JI, GLASER L: Regulation of creatine phosphokinase expression during differentiation of BC3H1 cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1983) 258:2644–2652.
  • ARMSTRONG AT, STRAUCH AR, STARLING RC, SEDMAKDD, OROSZ CG: Morphometric analysis of neointimal formation in murine cardiac grafts. III. Dissociation of interstitial fibrosis from neointimal formation. Transplantation (1997) 64:1198–1202.
  • TUCZU EM, DEFRANCO AC, GOORMASTIC MEA: Dichotomous pattern of coronary arteriosclerosis 1 to 9 years after transplantation: insights from systematic intravascular ultrasound imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol (1996) 27:839.
  • SHANAHAN CM, WEISSBERG PL: Smooth muscle cell heterogeneity-patterns of gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro and in vivo. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1998) 18:333–338.
  • MCHUGH KM: Molecular analysis of smooth muscledevelopment in the mouse. Dev. Dyn. (1995) 204:278–290.
  • RUZICKA DL, SCHWARTZ RJ: Sequential activation ofa-actin genes during avian cardiogenesis: vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene transcripts mark onset of cardiomyocyte differentiation. J. Cell Biol. (1988) 107:2575–2586.
  • •First report to document smooth muscle actin expression during avian cardiogenesis.
  • HAUTMANN MB, THOMPSON MM, SWARTZ EA, OLSON EN, OWENS GK: Angiotensin 11-induced stimulation of smooth muscle alpha-actin expression by serum response factor and the homeodomain transcription factor MHox. Circ. Res. (1997) 81:600–610.
  • HAUTMANN MB, MADSEN CS, OWENS GK: A transforming growth factor 3 (TGF6) control element drives TGF6-induced stimulation of smooth muscle a-actin gene expression in concert with two CArG elements. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:10948–10956.
  • STRAUCH AR, COGAN JG, SUBRAMANIAN SV et al. Transcriptional activity of the vascular smooth muscle alpha-actin gene as an indicator of cellular injury following cardiac transplant. Transplant Immunol (1997) 5:1–6.
  • MIN B, FOSTER DN, STRAUCH AR: The 5'-flanking region of the mouse vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene contains evolutionarily conserved sequence motifs within a functional promoter. J. Biol. Chem. (1990) 265:16667–16675.
  • ••See annotation for reference 91.
  • FOSTER DN, MIN B, FOSTER LK et al. Positive and negative cis-acting regulatory elements mediate expression of the mouse vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene. J. Biol. Chem. (1992) 267:11995–12003.
  • ••See annotation for reference 91.
  • STOFLET ES, SCHMIDT LJ, ELDER PK et al. Activation of a muscle-specific actin gene promoter in serum-stimulated fibroblasts. Molec. Biol. Cell (1992) 3:1073–1083.
  • ••First reports to describe the sequence and functional proper-ties of the mouse smooth muscle a-actin promoter.
  • WANG JW, NIU W, NIKIFOROV Y et al: Targeted overex-pression of IGF-I evokes distinct patterns of organ remodeling in smooth muscle cell tissue beds of transgenic mice. J. Clin. Invest. (1997) 100:1425–1439.
  • ••See annotation for reference 93.
  • WANG JW, NIU W, WITTE DP et al. Overexpression of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-4 (IGFBP-4) in smooth muscle cells of transgenic mice through a smooth muscle a-actin-IMP-4 fusion gene induces smooth muscle hypoplasia. Endocrinology (1998) 139:2605–2614.
  • ••The first two reports to describe tissue specific targeting ofexogenous cDNAs to smooth muscle beds in transgenic mice using the SMP8 VSM a-actin targeting promoter.
  • SAWTELL NM, LESSARD JL: Cellular distribution of smooth muscle actins during mammalian embryo-genesis: expression of the a-vascular but not the gamma-enteric isoform in differentiating striated myocytes. J. Cell Biol. (1989) 109:2929–2937.
  • SHIMIZU RT, BLANK RS, JERVIS R, LAWRENZ-SMITH Sc, OWENS GK: The smooth muscle a-actin gene promoter is differentially regulated in smooth muscle versus non-smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1995) 270:7631–7643.
  • BROWNING CL, CULBERSON DE, ARAGON IV et al. Thedevelopmentally regulated expression of serum response factor plays a key role in the control of smooth muscle-specific genes. Dev. Biol. (1998) 194:18–37.
  • CHEN CY, CROISSANT J, MAJESKY M et al. Activation ofthe cardiac a-actin promoter depends upon serum response factor, tinman homologue, Nkx-2.5, and intact serum response elements. Dev. Genet. (1996) 19:119–130.
  • CROISSANT JD, KIM JH, EICHELE G et al. Avian serum response factor expression restricted primarily to muscle cell lineages is required for a-actin gene transcription. Dev. Biol. (1996) 177:250–264.
  • PARADIS P, MACLELLAN WR, BELAGULI NS, SCHWARTZ RJ, SCHNEIDER MD: Serum response factor mediates AP-1-dependent induction of the skelet al a-actin promoter in ventricular myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. (1996) 271:10827–10833.
  • MACLELLAN WR, LEE TC, SCHWARTZ RJ, SCHNEIDER MD: Transforming growth factor-8 response elements of the skelet al a-actin gene. Combinatorial action of serum response factor, YY1, and the 5V40 enhancer-binding protein, TEF-1. J. Biol. Chem. (1994) 269:16754–16760.
  • LEE TC, CHOW KL, FANG P, SCHWARTZ RJ: Activation of skelet al a-actin gene transcription: the co-operative formation of serum response factor-binding complexes over positive cis-acting promoter serum response elements displaces a negative-acting nuclear factor enriched in replicating myoblasts and non-myogenic cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. (1991) 11:5090–5100.
  • TREISMAN R: Identification and purification of a polypeptide that binds to the c-fos serum response element. EMBO J (1987) 6:2711–2717.
  • PRYWES R, ROEDER RG: Purification of the c-fos enhancer-binding protein. Ma Cell. Biol. (1987) 7:3482–3489.
  • MADSEN CS, REGAN CP, OWENS GK: Interaction of CArG elements and a GC-rich repressor element in transcriptional regulation of the smooth muscle myosin heavy chain gene in vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:29842–29851.
  • MACK CP, OWENS GK: Regulation of smooth muscle a-actin expression in vivo is dependent on CArG elements within the 5' and first intron promoter regions. Circ. Res. (1999) 84:852–861.
  • •Transgenic analysis of CARG element function in the smooth muscle actin promoter.
  • STRAUCH AR, RUBENSTEIN PA: Induction of vascular smooth muscle a-isoactin expression in BC3H1 cells. J. Biol. Chem. (1984) 259:3152–3159.
  • STRAUCH AR, REESER JC: Sequential expression of smooth muscle and sarcomeric a-actin isoforms during BC3H1 cell differentiation. J. Biol. Chem. (1989) 264:8345–8355.
  • DESMOULIERE A, GABBIANI G: The role of myofibro-blasts in wound healing and fibrocontractile diseases. In: The Molecular and Cellular Biology of Wound Repair. Clark RAF, Henson PM (Eds.), Plenum Publishing Corp. New York, USA (1988):391–423.
  • ••Comprehensive review of myofibroblast cell biology andfunction during wound healing.
  • GRINNELL F: Fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, and wound contraction. J. Cell Biol. (1994) 124:401–404.
  • SKALLI O, SCHeRCH W, SEEMAYER T et al. Myofibro-blasts from diverse pathologic settings are heteroge-neous in their content of actin isoforms and intermediate filament proteins. Lab. Invest. (1989) 60:275–284.
  • BLACK FM, PACKER SE, PARKER TG et al. The vascular smooth muscle a-actin gene is reactivated during cardiac hypertrophy provoked by load. J. Clin. Invest. (1991) 88:1581–1588.
  • ••First report of smooth muscle actin foet al gene activation inhypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
  • KELM RJ, JR., COGAN JG, ELDER PK, STRAUCH AR, GETZ MJ: Molecular interactions between single-stranded DNA-binding proteins associated with an essential MCAT element in the mouse smooth muscle a-actin promoter. J. Biol. Chem. (1999) 274:14238–14345.
  • •Protein-protein complex formation at the smooth muscle actin promoter enhancer element.
  • MADSEN CS, REGAN CP, HUNGERFORD JE et al. Smooth muscle-specific expression of the smooth muscle myosin heavy chain gene in transgenic mice requires 5'-flanking and first intronic DNA sequence. Circ. Res. (1998) 82:908–917.
  • ••First report of smooth muscle targeting in transgenic miceusing a myosin targeting promoter.
  • LI L, MIANO JM, MERCER B, OLSON EN Expression of the SM22cc promoter in transgenic mice provides evidence for distinct transcriptional regulatoryprograms in vascular and visceral smooth muscle cells. J. Cell Biol. (1996) 132:849–859.
  • ••See annotation for reference 115.
  • LI L, MIANO JM, CSERJESI P, OLSEN EN: SM22a, a marker of adult smooth muscle, is expressed in multiple myogenic lineages during embryogenesis. Circ. Res. (1996) 78:188–195.
  • ••Two reports showing arterial specific expression of SM22apromoters in transgenic mice.
  • LI L, LIU ZC, MERCER B, OVERBEEK P, OLSON EN: Evidence for serum response factor-mediated regula-tory networks governing SM22a transcription in smooth, skelet al, and cardiac muscle cells. Dev. (1997) 187:311–321.
  • LEE TC, SHI Y, SCHWARTZ RJ: Displacement of BrdUrd-induced YY1 by serum response factor activates skelet al a-actin transcription in embryonic myoblasts. Proc. Natl. Acad. ScL USA (1992) 89:9814–9818.
  • GUALBERTO A, LE PAGE D, PONS G et al. Functional antagonism between YY1 and serum response factor. Mol. Cell. Biol. (1992) 12:4209–4214.
  • BASKIN LS, HAYWARD SW, YOUNG PF, CUNHA GR: Ontogeny of the rat bladder: smooth muscle and epithelial differentiation. Acta Anal (1996) 155:163–171.
  • BRODY JR, CUNHA GR: Histologic, morphometric, and immunocytochemical analysis of myometrial development in rats and mice. I. Normal development. Am. J. Anat. (1989) 186:1–20.
  • FRITSCH C, SIMON-ASSMANN P, KEDINGER M, EVANS GS: Cytokines modulate fibroblast phenotype and epithelial-stroma interactions in rat intestine. Gastro-enterology (1997) 112:826–838.
  • SMITH AF, BIGSBY RM, WORD RA, HERRING BP: A 310-bp minimal promoter mediates smooth muscle cell-specific expression of telokin. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physic)]. (1998) 274:C1188–C1195.
  • ••First report to show visceral smooth muscle targeting intransgenic mice using the telokin promoter.
  • QIAN J, KUMAR A, SZUCSIK JC, LESSARD JL: Tissue and developmental specific expression of murine smooth muscle gamma-actin fusion genes in transgenic mice. Dev. Dyn. (1996) 207:135–144.
  • ••First report to show visceral smooth muscle specificity of theenteric smooth muscle y-actin promoter.
  • CERCEK B, FISHBEIN MC, FORRESTER JS, HELFANT RH, FAGIN JA: Induction of insulin-like growth Factor I messenger RNA in rat aorta after balloon denudation. Circ. Res. (1990) 66:1755–1760.
  • KHORSANDI MJ, FAGIN JA, GIANNELLA-NETO D, FORRESTER JS, CERCEK B: Regulation of insulin-like growth factor-I and its receptor in rat aorta after balloon denudation. Evidence for local bioactivity. J. Clin. Invest. (1992) 90:1926–1931.
  • LUND PK: The alpha-smooth muscle actin promoter: a useful tool to analyse autocrine and paracrine roles of mesenchymal cells in normal and diseased bowel. Gut (1998) 42:320–322.
  • MAEDA S, SUTLIFF RL, QIAN J et al. Targeted overex-pression of parathyroid hormone-related protein to vascular smooth muscle in transgenic mice lowers blood pressure and alters vascular contractility. Endocrinology (1999) 140:1815–1825.
  • ••Part one of a two-part study (see reference 130) that was thefirst to describe VSM physiologic reprogramming in transgenic mice using the SMP8 smooth muscle actin targeting promoter.
  • WYSOLMERSKI JJ, STEWART AF: The physiology of parathyroid hormone-related protein: An emerging role as a developmental factor. Annu. Rev. Physiol. (1998) 60:431–460.
  • WYSOLMERSKI JJ, MCCAUGHERN-CARUCCI J, DAIFOTIS AG, BROADUS AE, PHILBRICK WM: Overexpression of parathyroid hormone-related protein or parathyroid hormone in transgenic mice impairs branching morphogenesis during mammary gland development. Development (1995) 121:3539–3547.
  • QIAN J, LORENZ JN, MAEDA S et al. Reduced blood pressure and increased sensitivity of the vasculature to PThrP in transgenic mice overexpressing the PTH/PTHrP receptor in vascular smooth muscle. Endocrinology (1999) 140:1826–1833.
  • ••Part two of the transgenic mouse model described above inreference 127 annotation.
  • ISNER JM: Arterial gene transfer of naked DNA for therapeutic angiogenesis: early clinical results. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. (1998) 30:185–197.
  • LAITINEN M, PAKKANEN T, DONETTI E et al. Gene transfer into the carotid artery using an adventitial collar: Comparison of the effectiveness of the plasmid-liposome complexes, retroviruses, pseudo-typed retroviruses, and adenoviruses. Hum. Gene Ther. (1997) 8:1645–1650.
  • CHENG L, MANTILE G, PAULY R et al. Adenovirus-mediated gene transfer of the human tissue inhibitor of met alloproteinase-2 blocks vascular smooth muscle cell invasiveness in vitro and modulates neointimal development in vivo. Circulation (1998) 98:2195–2201.
  • REKHTER MD, SHAH N, SIMARI RD et al. Graft permeabi-lization facilitates gene therapy of transplant arterio-sclerosis in a rabbit model. Circulation (1998) 98:1335–1341.
  • MOZES G, MOHACSI T, GLOVICZKI P et al. Adenovirus-mediated gene transfer of macrophage colony stimulating factor to the arterial wall in vivo. Arterio-scler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (1998) 18:1157–1163.
  • BAUMGARTNER I, PIECZEK A, MANOR O et al. Constitu-tive expression of phVEGFiss after intramuscular gene transfer promotes collateral vessel development in patients with critical limb ischemia. Circulation (1998) 97:1114–1123.
  • SATA M, PERLMAN H, MURUVE DA et al. Fas ligand gene transfer to the vessel wall inhibits neointima formation and overrides the adenovirus-mediated T cell response. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:1213–1217.
  • KIM S, UN H, BARR E et al. Transcriptional targeting of replication-defective adenovirus transgene expres-sion to smooth muscle cells in vivo. J. Clin. Invest. (1997) 100:1006–1014.
  • ••First reported attempt to use the arterial smooth muscle-specific SM22a targeting promoter to deliver transgenes to injured blood vessels in vivo.
  • GUZMAN RJ, HIRSCHOWITZ EA, BRODY SL et al.: In vivo suppression of injury-induced vascular smooth muscle cell accumulation using adenovirus-mediated transfer of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1994) 91:10732–10736.
  • MORISHITA R, GIBBONS GH, ELLISON KE et al. Single intraluminal delivery of antisense cdc2 kinase and proliferating-cell nuclear antigen oligonucleotides results in chronic inhibition of neointimal hyperplasia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1993) 90:8474–8478.
  • MORISHITA R, GIBBONS GH, HORIUCHI M et al. A gene therapy strategy using a transcription factor decoy of the E2F binding site inhibits smooth muscle prolifera-tion in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1995) 92:5855–5859.
  • MORISHITA R, GIBBONS GH, KANEDA Y, OGIHARA T, DZAU VJ: Novel in vitro gene transfer method for study of local modulators in vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension (1993) 21:894–899.
  • SIMONS M, EDELMAN ER, ROSENBERG RD: Antisense proliferating cell nuclear antigen oligonucleotides inhibit intimal hyperplasia in a rat carotid artery injury model. J. Clin. Invest. (1994) 93:2351–2356.
  • YANG ZY, SIMARI RD, PERKINS ND et al. Role of the p21 cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor in limiting intimal cell proliferation in response to arterial injury. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1996) 93:7905–7910.
  • SCHAPER W, ITO WD: Molecular mechanisms of coronary collateral vessel growth. Circ. Res. (1996) 79:911–919.
  • AIKAWA M, RABKIN E, VOGLIC SJ et al. Lipid lowering promotes accumulation of mature smooth muscle cells expressing smooth muscle myosin heavy chain isoforms in rabbit atheroma. Circ. Res. (1998) 83:1015–1026.
  • L'HEUREUX N, PAQUET S, LABBE R, GERMAIN L, AUGER FA: A completely biological tissue-engineered human blood vessel. FASEB J. (1998) 12:47–56.
  • NIKLASON LE, GAO J, ABBOTT WM et al. Functional arteries grown in Isolation of human pluripotent stem cells from bone marrow
  • ••See annotation for reference 149.
  • OBERPENNING F, MENG J, Y00 JJ, ATALA A: De novo reconstitution of a functional mammalian urinary bladder by tissue engineering. Nature Biotech. (1999) 17:149–155.
  • ••Three reports of successful smooth muscle tissue bioengi-neering using cultured cell and synthetic matrices.
  • PITTENGER MF, MACKAY AM, BECK SC et al. Multilineage potential of adult mesenchymal stem cells. Science (1999) 284:143–147.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.