Advanced search
Publication Cover
Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets Volume 9, 2005 - Issue 1
Submit an article Journal homepage
93
Views
48
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

The plastid-derived organelle ofprotozoan human parasites asa target of established and emerging drugs

Jochen Wiesner Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Biochemisches Institut, Friedrichstr. 24, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
&
Frank Seeber Philipps-Universität Marburg, FB Biologie/Parasitologie, Karl-von-Frisch-Str., D-35032 Marburg, Germany. [email protected]
Pages 23-44 | Published online: 22 Apr 2005

Bibliography

  • WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION: Communicable diseases 2002: global defense against the infectious disease threat. Kindhauser M (Ed.) World Health Organisation, Geneva, (2003):231(XX).
  • CAMPBELL P, BUTLER D: Malaria. Nature (2004) 430:923ff.
  • LEVINE ND: The protozoan phylum Apicomplexa. (Ed.) CRC Press, Boca Raton (1988).
  • MAITLAND K, BEJON P, NEWTON CR: Malaria. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. (2003) 16:389–395.
  • •Short introduction to malaria.
  • RIDLEY RG: Medical need, scientific opportunity and the drive for antimalarial drugs. Nature (2002) 415:686–693.
  • WHITE NJ: Antimalarial drug resistance. J. Clin. Invest. (2004) 113:1084–1092.
  • •Gives a good overview of the problem of drug resistance.
  • WINSTANLEY P, WARD S, SNOW R, BRECKENRIDGE A: Therapy of falciparum malaria in sub-saharan Africa: from molecule to policy. Clin. Microbial Rev. (2004) 17:612–637.
  • WIESNER J, ORTMANN R, JOMAA H, SCHLITZER M: New antimalarial drugs. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. (2003) 42:5274–5293.
  • •Comprehensive overview of established and new compounds targeting diverse pathways in the malarial parasite, not only the apicoplast.
  • MONTOYA JG, LIESENFELD O: Toxoplasmosis. Lancet (2004) 363:1965–1976.
  • •Provides a timely introduction to the disease.
  • TENTER AM, HECKEROTH AR, WEISS LM: Toxoplasma gandli: from animals to humans. Int. Parasitol (2000) 30:1217–1258.
  • TORREY EF, YOLKEN RH: Toxoplasma gandli and schizophrenia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. (2003) 9:1375–1380.
  • HIJJAWI NS, MELONI BP, NG'ANZO M et al.: Complete development of Cryptosporidium parvum in host cell-free culture. Int. Parasitol (2004) 34:769–777.
  • MEAD JR: Cryptosporidiosis and the challenges of chemotherapy. Drug Resist. Update (2002) 5:47–57.
  • ABRAHAMSEN MS, TEMPLETON TJ, ENOMOTO S et al.: Complete genome sequence of the apicomplexan, Cryptosporidium parvum. Science (2004) 304:441–445.
  • •Provides unequivocal evidence that this apicomplexan parasite does not contain an apicoplast and also lays the foundation for future drug targets.
  • ZHU G, MARCHEWKA MJ, KEITHLY JS: Cryptosporidium parvum appears to lack a plastid genome. Microbiology (2000) 146:315–321.
  • LEANDER BS, KEELING PJ: Early evolutionary history of dinoflagellates and apicomplexans (Alveolata) as inferred from hsp90 and actin phylogenies. Phycol (2004) 40:341–350.
  • FAST NM, KISSINGER JC, ROOS DS, KEELING PJ: Nuclear-encoded, plastid-targeted genes suggest a single common origin for apicomplexan and dinoflagellate plastids. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2001) 18:418–426.
  • TEMPLETON TJ, IYER LM, ANANTHARAMAN V et al: Comparative analysis of apicomplexa and genomic diversity in eukaryotes. Genome Res. (2004) 14:1686–1695.
  • CHEN XM, KEITHLY JS, PAYA CV, LARUSSO NF: Cryptosporidiosis. N Engl. J. Med. (2002) 346:1723–1731.
  • SHIELDS JM, OLSON BH: Cyclaspora cayetanensis: a review of an emerging parasitic coccidian. Int. J. Parasitol (2003) 33:371–391.
  • WILSON RJ: Progress with parasite plastids. MoL Biol. (2002) 319:257–274.
  • FOTH BJ, MCFADDEN GI: The apicoplast: a plastid in Plasmodium fakiparum and other Apicomplexan parasites. Int. Rev Cytal (2003) 224:57–110.
  • ••This review, together with [21],gives a comprehensive and insightful overview of our current knowledge of the biology of the apicoplast.
  • RALPH SA, VAN DOOREN GG, WALLER RF et al.: Metabolic maps and functions of the Plasmodium fakiparum apicoplast. Nat. Rev Microbial (2004) 2:203–216.
  • ••An oustanding compilation of the presumed metabolic pathways operating in the apicoplast, based on bioinformatic predictions and biochemical evidence.
  • FUNES S, REYES-PRIETO A, PEREZ-MARTINEZ X, GONZALEZ-HALPHEN D: On the evolutionary origins of apicoplasts: revisiting the rhodophyte vs. chlorophyte controversy. Microbes Infect. (2004) 6:305–311.
  • GARDNER MJ, WILLIAMSON DH, WILSON RJ: A circular DNA in malaria parasites encodes an RNA polymerase like that of prokaryotes and chloroplasts. Mal Biochem. Parasital. (1991) 44:115–123.
  • GARDNER MJ, HALL N, FUNG E et al: Genome sequence of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum. Nature (2002) 419:498–511.
  • ••A landmark paper that has already provided the basis for the discovery of a number of potential drug targets.
  • FOTH BJ, RALPH SA, TONKIN CJ et al: Dissecting apicoplast targeting in the malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum. Science (2003) 299:705–708.
  • ZUEGGE J, RALPH S, SCHMUKER M, MCFADDEN GI, SCHNEIDER G: Deciphering apicoplast targeting signals - feature extraction from nuclear-encoded precursors of Plasmodium fakiparum apicoplast proteins. Gene (2001) 280:19–26.
  • RALPH SA, D'OMBRAIN MC, MCFADDEN GI: The apicoplast as an antimalarial drug target. Drug Resist. Update (2001) 4:145–151.
  • SEEBER F: Biosynthetic pathways of plastid-derived organelles as potential drug targets against parasitic apicomplexa. Curr. Drug Targets Immune Endocr. Metabol Disord. (2003) 3:99–109.
  • VAIDYA AB: Mitochondrial and plastid functions as antimalarial drug targets. Curr. Drug Targets Infect. Disord. (2004) 4:11–23.
  • FICHERA ME, ROOS DS: A plastid organelle as a drug target in apicomplexan parasites. Nature (1997) 390:407–409.
  • •The first description that the apicoplast is an essential component in Apicomplexa.
  • WEISSIG V, VETRO-WIDENHOUSE TS, ROWE TC: Topoisomerase II inhibitors induce cleavage of nuclear and 35-kb plastid DNAs in the malarial parasite Plasmodium fakiparum. DNA Cell Biol. (1997) 16:1483–1492.
  • •Provides direct evidence for the mechanism of action of gyrase inhibitors in 1? falciparum.
  • WILLIAMSON DH, PREISER PR, MOORE PW et al: The plastid DNA of the malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum is replicated by two mechanisms. Mol Microbial. (2002) 45:533–542.
  • WILSON RJ, DENNY PW, PREISER PR et al: Complete gene map of the plastid-like DNA of the malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum. Mol Biol. (1996) 261:155–172.
  • MCCONKEY GA, ROGERS MJ, MCCUTCHAN TF: Inhibition of Plasmodium fakiparum protein synthesis. Targeting the plastid-like organelle with thiostrepton. J. Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:2046–2049.
  • STRATH M, SCOTT-FINNIGAN T, GARDNER M, WILLIAMSON D, WILSON I: Antimalarial activity of rifampicin in vitro and in rodent models. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. (1993) 87:211–216.
  • PUKRITTAYAKAMEE S, VIRAVAN C, CHAROENLARP P et al: Antimalarial effects of rifampin in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1994) 38:511–514.
  • FREERKSEN E, KANTHUNKUMVA EW, KHOLOWA AR: Cotrifazid - an agent against malaria. Chemotherapy (1996) 42:391–401.
  • GOERG H, OCHOLA SA, GOERG R: Treatment of malaria tropica with a fixed combination of rifampicin, co-trimoxazole and isoniazid: a clinical study. Chemotherapy (1999) 45:68–76.
  • •Shows the antimalarial efficacy of a rifampicin-containing drug combination.
  • ARAUJO FG, KHAN AA, REMINGTON JS: Rifapentine is active in vitro and in vivo against Toxoplasma Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:1335–1337.
  • CAI X, FULLER AL, MCDOUGALD LR,ZHU G: Apicoplast genome of the coccidian Eimeria tenella. Gene (2003) 321:39–46.
  • SPAHN CM, PRESCOTT CD: Throwing a spanner in the works: antibiotics and the translation apparatus. ./. Mol Med. (1996) 74:423–439.
  • BECKERS CJ, ROOS DS, DONALD RG et al.: Inhibition of cytoplasmic and organellar protein synthesis in Toxoplasma gondii: implications for the target of macrolide antibiotics. Clin. Invest. (1995) 95:367–376.
  • KIATFUENGFOO R, SUTHIPHONGCHAI T, PRAPUNWATTANA P, YUTHAVONG Y: Mitochondria as the site of action of tetracycline on Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem. Parasitol (1989) 34:109–115.
  • CAMPS M, ARRIZABALAGA G, BOOTHROYD J: An rRNA mutation identifies the apicoplast as the target for clindamycin in Toxoplasma gondii Mol. Microbial. (2002) 43:1309–1318.
  • •A nice example that shows how molecular methods can be used to identify the molecular target of an already used drug.
  • ROGERS MJ, CUNDLIFFE E, MCCUTCHAN TF: The antibiotic micrococcin is a potent inhibitor of growth and protein synthesis in the malaria parasite. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 42:715–716.
  • CLOUGH B, STRATH M, PREISER P, DENNY P, WILSON IR: Thiostrepton binds to malarial plastid rRNA. FEBS Lett. (1997) 406:123–125.
  • SULLIVAN M, LI J, KUMAR S, ROGERS MJ, MCCUTCHAN TF: Effects of interruption of apicoplast function on malaria infection, development, and transmission. Mol Biochem. Parasitol (2000) 109:17–23.
  • CARTER R: Spatial simulation of malariatransmission and its control by malaria transmission blocking vaccination. Int. J. Parasitol (2002) 32:1617–1624.
  • HISAEDA H, YASUTOMO K: Development of malaria vaccines that block transmission of parasites by mosquito vectors. .1 Med. Invest. (2002) 49:118–123.
  • CLOUGH B, RANGACHARI K, STRATH M, PREISER PR, WILSON RJ: Antibiotic inhibitors of organellar protein synthesis in Plasmodium fakiparum. Protist (1999) 150:189–195.
  • FICHERA ME, BHOPALE MK, ROOS DS: In vitro assays elucidate peculiar kinetics of clindamycin action against Toxoplasma gondii Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:1530–1537.
  • ••Gives the most comprehensive insightInto the phenomenon of the delayed death phenotype to date.
  • GEARY TG, JENSEN JB: Effects of antibiotics on Plasmodium fakiparum in vitro. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. (1983) 32:221–225.
  • YEO AE, EDSTEIN MD, SHANKS GD, RIECKMANN KH: Potentiation of the antimalarial activity of atovaquone by doxycycline against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Parasitol Res. (1997) 83:489–491.
  • YEO AE, RIECKMANN KH: Prolonged exposure of Plasmodium falciparum to ciprofloxacin increases anti-malarial activity. .1 Parasitol (1994) 80:158–160.
  • YEO AE, RIECKMANN KH: Increased antimalarial activity of azithromycin during prolonged exposure of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Int. J. Parasitol (1995) 25:531–532.
  • PRADINES B, SPIEGEL A, ROGIER C et al: Antibiotics for prophylaxis of Plasmodium fakiparum infections: in vitro activity of doxycycline against Senegalese isolates. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. (2000) 62:82–85.
  • YEO AE, RIECKMANN KH: The in vitro antimalarial activity of chloramphenicol against Plasmodium falciparum. Acta Trop. (1994) 56:51–54.
  • HE CY, SHAW MK, PLETCHER CH et al: A plastid segregation defect in the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii EMBO J. (2001) 20:330–339.
  • •Illustrates nicely the impressive consequences of the loss of the apicoplast on a cellular level.
  • DIVO AA, GEARY TG, JENSEN JB: Oxygen- and time-dependent effects of antibiotics and selected mitochondrial inhibitors on Plasmodium falciparum in culture. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1985) 27:21–27.
  • WIESNER J, BORRMANN S, JOMAA H: Fosmidomycin for the treatment of malaria. Parasitol Res. (2003) 90(Suppl 2):571–576.
  • •Comprehensive review on isoprenoid synthesis in 1? falciparum.
  • KOLLAS AK, DUIN EC, EBERL M etal.: Functional characterization of GcpE, an essential enzyme of the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. FEBS Lett. (2002) 532:432–436.
  • SEEMANN M, BUT BT, WOLFF M etal.: Isoprenoid biosynthesis through the methylerythritol phosphate pathway: the (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate synthase (GcpE) is a [4Fe-4S] protein. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.Engl. (2002) 41:4337–4339.
  • ALTINCICEK B, DUIN EC, REICHENBERG A etal.: LytB protein catalyzes the terminal step of the 2-C-methyl-D-erythrito1-4-phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. FEBS Lett. (2002) 532:437–440.
  • WIESNER J, HINTZ M, ALTINCICEK B etal.: Plasmodium fakiparum: detection of the deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase activity. Exp. Parasitol. (2000) 96:182–186.
  • JOMAA H, WIESNER J, SANDERBRAND S et al.: Inhibitors of the nonmevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis as antimalarial drugs. Science (1999) 285:1573–1576.
  • ••Describes the initial identification of isoprenoid synthesis in P faldparum and its inhibition by Fosmidomycin.
  • KUZUYAMA T, SHIMIZU T, TAKAHASHI S, SETO H: Fosmidomycin, a specific inhibitor of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase in the nonmevalonate pathway for terpenoid biosynthesis. Tetrahedron Lett. (1998) 39:7913–7916.
  • ZEIDLER J, SCHWENDER J, MULLER C et al.: Inhibition of the non-mevalonate 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate pathway of plant isoprenoid biosynthesis by fosmidomycin. Z Naturforsch. C(1998) 53:980–986.
  • KUEMMERLE HP, MURAKAWA T, SAKAMOTO H et al.: Fosmidomycin, a new phosphonic acid antibiotic. Part II: 1. Human pharmacokinetics. 2. Preliminary early phase Ha clinical studies. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. Toxicol. (1985) 23:521–528.
  • SHIGI Y: Inhibition of bacterial isoprenoidsynthesis by fosmidomycin, a phosphonic acid-containing antibiotic. .1 Antimicrob. Chemother. (1989) 24:131–145.
  • STEINBACHER S, KAISER J, EISENREICH W et al.: Structural basis of fosmidomycin action revealed by the complex with 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate synthase (IspC). Implications for the catalytic mechanism and anti-malaria drug development. ./. Biol. Chem. (2003) 278:18401–18407.
  • WIESNER J, HENS CHKER D, HUTCHINSON DB, BECK E, JOMAA H: In vitro and in vivo synergy of fosmidomycin, a novel antimalarial drug, with clindamycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2002) 46:2889–2894.
  • TSUCHIYA T, ISHIBASHI K, TERAKAWA M et al.: Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of fosmidomycin, a new phosphonic acid, in rats and dogs. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. (1982) 7:59–64.
  • MURAKAWA T, SAKAMOTO H, FUKADA S, KONISHI T, NISHIDA M: Pharmacokinetics of fosmidomycin, a new phosphonic acid antibiotic. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1982) 21:224–230.
  • KUEMMERLE HP, MURAKAWA T, SONEOKA K, KONISHI T: Fosmidomycin: a new phosphonic acid antibiotic. Part I: Phase I tolerance studies. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. Toxicol. (1985) 23:515–520.
  • REICHENBERG A, WIESNER J, WEIDEMEYER C et al.: Diaryl ester prodrugs of FR900098 with improved in vivo antimalarial activity. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (2001) 11:833–835.
  • ORTMANN R, WIESNER J, REICHENBERG A et al.: Acyloxyalkyl ester prodrugs of FR900098 with improved in vivo anti-malarial activity. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (2003) 13:2163–2166.
  • GOTTLIN EB, BENSON RE, CONARY S et al.: High-throughput screen for inhibitors of 1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase by surrogate ligand competition. ./. Biomol. Screen. (2003) 8:332–339.
  • REUTER K, SANDERBRAND S, JOMAA H et al.: Crystal structure of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase, a crucial enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. .1 Biol. Chem. (2002) 277:5378–5384.
  • YAJIMA S, NONAKA T, KUZUYAMA T, SETO H, OHSAWA K: Crystal structure of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase complexed with cofactors: implications of a flexible loop movement upon substrate binding. Biochem. (2002) 131:313–317.
  • RICAGNO S, GROLLE S, BRINGER-MEYER S et al.: Crystal structure of 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase from Zymomonas mobilis at 1.9-A resolution. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (2004) 1698:37–44.
  • RICHARD SB, BOWMAN ME, KWIATKOWSKI W et al.: Structure of 4-diphosphocytidy1-2-C-methylerythritol synthetase involved in mevalonate-independent isoprenoid biosynthesis. Nat. Struct. Biol. (2001) 8:641–648.
  • WADA T, KUZUYAMA T, SATOH S et al.: Crystal structure of 4-(cytidine 5'-diphospho) 2 C methyl-D-erythritol kinase, an enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid synthesis. ./. Biol. Chem. (2003) 278:30022–30027.
  • MIALLAU L, ALPHEY MS, KEMP LE et al.: Biosynthesis of isoprenoids: crystal structure of 4-diphosphocytidy1-2C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase. Proc. Nati Acad. Sri. USA (2003) 100:9173–9178.
  • KISHIDA H, WADA T, UNZAI S et al.:Structure and catalytic mechanism of 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MECDP) synthase, an enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid synthesis. Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. (2003) 59:23–31.
  • ALTINCICEK B, HINTZ M, SANDERBRAND S et al.: Tools for discovery of inhibitors of the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) synthase and DXP reductoisomerase: an approach with enzymes from the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. (2000) 190:329–333.
  • ROHDICH F, WUNGSINTAWEEKUL J, FELLERMEIER M et al.: Cytidine 5'-triphosphate-dependent biosynthesis of isoprenoids: YgbP protein of Escherichia coil catalyzes the formation of 4-diphosphocytidy1-2-C-methylerythritol. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96:11758–11763.
  • BRANDT W, DESSOY MA, FULHORST M et al.: A proposed mechanism for the reductive ring opening of the cyclodiphosphate MEcPP, a crucial transformation in the new DXP/MEP pathway to isoprenoids based on modeling studies and feeding experiments. Chembiochem. (2004) 5:311–323.
  • EBERL M, HINTZ M, REICHENBERG A et al: Microbial isoprenoid biosynthesis and human gammadelta T cell activation. FEBS Lett. (2003) 544:4–10.
  • GORNICKI P: Apicoplast fatty acid biosynthesis as a target for medical intervention in apicomplexan parasites. Int. J. Parasitol (2003) 33:885–896.
  • •Gives a good overview on FAS in Apicomplexa.
  • RANGAN VS, SMITH S: Fatty acid synthesis in eukaryotes. In: Biochemistry of lipids, lipoproteins and mebranes. Vance DE et al. (Eds) Elsevier Science, Amsterdam (2002):151–179.
  • HEATH RJ, WHITE SW, ROCK CO: Inhibitors of fatty acid synthesis as antimicrobial chemotherapeutics. Appi Microbiol Biotechnol (2002) 58:695–703.
  • CAMPBELL JW, CRONAN JE: Bacterial fatty acid biosynthesis: targets for antibacterial drug discovery. AMU. Rev Microbiol (2001) 55:305–332.
  • HEATH RJ, ROCK CO: Fatty acid biosynthesis as a target for novel antibacterials. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs (2004) 5:146–153.
  • WALLER RE KEELING PJ, DONALD RG et al: Nuclear-encoded proteins target to the plastid in Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium fakiparum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95:12352–12357.
  • ••This report provided the first evidence offatty acid biosynthesis in the apicoplast by nuclear-encoded proteins and paved the way for a number of inhibitor studies.
  • MCFADDEN GI, ROOS DS: Apicomplexan plastids as drug targets. Trends Microbiol (1999) 7:328–333.
  • ROCK CO, JACKOWSKI S: Forty years of bacterial fatty acid synthesis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (2002) 292:1155–1166.
  • PRIGGE ST, HEX, GERENA L, WATERS NC, REYNOLDS KA: The initiating steps of a type II fatty acid synthase in Plasmodium fakiparum are catalyzed by pfacp, pfmcat, and piKASIII. Biochemistry (2003) 42:1160–1169.
  • WALLER RE RALPH SA, REED MB et al: A type II pathway for fatty acid biosynthesis presents drug targets in Plasmodium fakiparum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:297–301.
  • JONES SM, URCH JE, BRUN R et al: Analogues of thiolactomycin as potential anti-malarial and anti-trypanosomal agents. Bioorg. Med. Chem. (2004) 12:683–692.
  • JACKOWSKI S, ZHANG YM, PRICE AC, WHITE SW, ROCK CO: A missense mutation in the fabB (beta-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase I) gene confers tiolactomycin resistance to Escherichia coll. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2002) 46:1246–1252.
  • KUHAJDA FP, PIZER ES, LI JN et al.: Synthesis and antitumor activity of an inhibitor of fatty acid synthase. Proc. Nati Acad. ScL USA (2000) 97:3450–3454.
  • SUROLIA N, SUROLIA A: Triclosan offers protection against blood stages of malaria by inhibiting enoyl-ACP reductase of Plasmodium fakiparum. Nat. Med. (2001) 7:167–173.
  • ••Together with [114] establishes in vivoantimalarial efficacy of an inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis and thus defines a promising drug candidate.
  • INCLEDON BJ, HALL JC: Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase: quaterny structure and inhibition by graminicidal herbicides. Pestle. Biochem. Physiol. (1997) 57:255–271.
  • JELENSKA J, CRAWFORD MJ, HARB OS et al.: Subcellular localization of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Proc. Nati Acad. ScL USA (2001) 98:2723–2728.
  • ZUTHER E, JOHNSON JJ, HASELKORN R, MCLEOD R, GORNICKI P: Growth of Toxoplasma gondii is inhibited by aryloxyphenoxypropionate herbicides targeting acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96:13387–13392.
  • JELENSKA J, SIRIKHACHORNKIT A, HASELKORN R, GORNICKI P: The carboxyltransferase activity of the apicoplast acetyl-CoA carboxylase of Toxoplasma gondii is the target of aryloxyphenoxypropionate inhibitors. Biol. Chem. (2002) 277:23208–23215.
  • BORK S, YOKOYAMA N, MATSUO T et al.: Clotrimazole, ketoconazole, and clodinafop-propargyl as potent growth inhibitors of equine Babesia parasites during in vitro culture. Parasitoi (2003) 89:604–606.
  • SHANER DL: Herbicide safety relative to common targets in plants and mammals. Pest. Manag. Sci. (2004) 60:17–24.
  • ZAGNITKO O, JELENSKA J, TEVZADZE G, HASELKORN R, GORNICKI P: An isoleucine/leucine residue in the carboxyltransferase domain of acetyl-CoA carboxylase is critical for interaction with aryloxyphenoxypropionate and cyclohexanedione inhibitors. Proc. Nati Acad. ScL USA (2001) 98:6617–6622.
  • LEVY CW, ROUJEINIKOVA A, SEDELNIKOVA S et al: Molecular basis of triclosan activity. Nature (1999) 398:383–384.
  • HEATH RJ, RUBIN JR, HOLLAND DR et al.: Mechanism of triclosan inhibition of bacterial fatty acid synthesis. .1 Biol. Chem. (1999) 274:11110–11114.
  • MCLEOD R, MUENCH SP, RAFFERTY JB et al: Triclosan inhibits the growth of Plasmodium fakiparum and Toxoplasma gondii by inhibition of apicomplexan Fab I. Int. .1. Parasitoi (2001) 31:109–113.
  • PEROZZO R, KUO M, SIDHU AS et al: Structural elucidation of the specificity of the antibacterial agent triclosan for malarial enoyl acyl carrier protein reductase. ./. Biol. Chem. (2002) 277:13106–13114.
  • SAMUEL BU, HEARN B, MACK D et al.: Delivery of antimicrobials into parasites. Proc. Nati Acad. ScL USA (2003) 100:14281–14286.
  • •Shows a very interesting approach to improve the bioavailability of triclosan for in vivo use.
  • KAPOOR M, GOPALAKRISHNAPAI J, SUROLIA N, SUROLIA A: Mutational analysis of the triclosan-binding region of enoyl-ACP (acyl-carrier protein) reductase from Plasmodium fakiparum. Biochem. (2004) 381:735–741.
  • KUO MR, MORBIDONI HR, ALLAND D et al.: Targeting tuberculosis and malaria through inhibition of enoyl reductase: compound activity and structural data. J. Biol. Chem. (2003) 278:20851–20859.
  • WENDER PA, MITCHELL DJ, PATTABIRAMAN K et al.: The design, synthesis, and evaluation of molecules that enable or enhance cellular uptake: peptoid molecular transporters. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (2000) 97:13003–13008.
  • SHARMA S, RAMYA TN, SUROLIA A, SUROLIA N: Triclosan as a systemic antibacterial agent in a mouse model of acute bacterial challenge. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:3859–3866.
  • CHARRON AJ, SIBLEY LD: Host cells mobilizable lipid resources for the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii Cell Sci. (2002) 115:3049–3059.
  • RAO SP, SUROLIA A, SUROLIA N: Triclosan: a shot in the arm for antimalarial chemotherapy. Mol. Cell. Biochem. (2003) 253:55–63.
  • VILLALAIN J, MATEO CR, ARANDA FJ, SHAPIRO S, MICOL V: Membranotropic effects of the antibacterial agent Triclosan. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. (2001) 390:128–136.
  • LYGRE H, MOE G, SKALEVIK R, HOLMSEN H: Interaction of triclosan with eukaryotic membrane lipids. Eur.1. Oral Sci. (2003) 111:216–222.
  • WANG LQ, FALANY CN, JAMES MO: Triclosan as a substrate and inhibitor of PAPS-sulfotransferase and UDP-glucuronosyl transferase in human liver fractions. Drug Metab. Dispos. (2004) 32:1162–1169.
  • PAUL KS, BACCHI CJ, ENGLUND PT: Multiple triclosan targets in Trypanosoma brucei. Eukaryot. Cell (2004) 3:855–861.
  • LIU B, WANG Y, FILLGROVE KL, ANDERSON VE: Triclosan inhibits enoyl-reductase of type I fatty acid synthase in vitro and is cytotoxic to MCF-7 and SKBr-3 breast cancer cells. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. (2002) 49:187–193.
  • ARAI M, ALAVI YI, MENDOZA J, BILLKER O, SINDEN RE: Isonicotinic acid hydrazide: an anti-tuberculosis drug inhibits malarial transmission in the mosquito gut. Exp. Parasitol. (2004) 106:30–36.
  • ZHU G: Current progress in the fatty acid metabolism in Cryptosporidium parvum.1. Euk. Microbial. (2004) 51:381–388.
  • GIGLIONE C, BOULAROT A, MEINNEL T: Protein N-terminal methionine excision. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. (2004) 61:1455–1474.
  • GIGLIONE C, SERERO A, PIERRE M, BOISSON B, MEINNEL T: Identification of eukaryotic peptide deformylases reveals universality of N-terminal protein processing mechanisms. EMBO (2000) 19:5916–5929.
  • MEINNEL T: Peptide deformylase of eukaryotic protists: a target for new antiparasitic agents? Parasitol. Today (2000) 16:165–168.
  • CHEN DZ, PATEL DV, HACKBARTH CJ et al.: Actinonin, a naturally occurring antibacterial agent, is a potent deformylase inhibitor. Biochemistry (2000) 39:1256–1262.
  • WIESNER J, SANDERBRAND S, ALTINCICEK B, BECK E, JOMAA H: Seeking new targets for antiparasitic agents. Trends Parasitol. (2001) 17:7–8.
  • BOULAROT A, GIGLIONE C, ARTAUD I, MEINNEL T: Structure-activity relationship analysis and therapeutic potential of peptide deformylase inhibitors. Curr. Opin. Invest. Drugs (2004) 5:809–822.
  • ROBIEN MA, NGUYEN KT, KUMAR A et al.: An improved crystal form of Plasmodium fakiparum peptide deformylase. Protein Sci. (2004) 13:1155–1163.
  • SULLIVAN DJ: Theories on malarial pigment formation and quinoline action. Int. 1. Parasitol. (2002) 32:1645–1653.
  • SUROLIA N, PADMANABAN G: De novo biosynthesis of heme offers a new chemotherapeutic target in the human malarial parasite. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (1992) 187:744–750.
  • BONDAY ZQ, TAKETANI S, GUPTA PD, PADMANABAN G: Heme biosynthesis by the malarial parasite. Import of delta-aminolevulinate dehydrase from the host red cell. .1 Biol. Chem. (1997) 272:21839–21846.
  • ROOS DS, CRAWFORD MJ, DONALD RG et al.: Mining the Plasmodium genome database to define organellar function: what does the apicoplast do? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Li. (2002) 357:35–46.
  • VARADHARAJAN S, SAGAR BK, RANGARAJAN PN, PADMANABAN G: Localization of ferrochelatase in Plasmodium fakiparum. Biochem. 1 (2004) 384:429–436.
  • •Together with [142] this paper illustrates that predictions of localisations still require experimental proof.
  • SATO S, CLOUGH B, COATES L, WILSON RJ: Enzymes for heme biosynthesis are found in both the mitochondrion and plastid of the malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum. Protist (2004) 155:117–125.
  • BIRCHFIELD NB, CASIDA JE: Protoporphyrinogen oxidase of mouse and maize: target site selectivity and thiol effects on peroxidizing herbicide action. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. (1997) 57:36–43.
  • KOCH M, BREITHAUPT C, KIEFERSAUER R et al.: Crystal structure of protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase: a key enzyme in haem and chlorophyll biosynthesis. EMBO (2004) 23:1720–1728.
  • PUKRITTAYAKAMEE S, IMWONG M, LOOAREESUWAN S, WHITE NJ: Therapeutic responses to antimalarial and antibacterial drugs in vivax malaria. Acta Trop. (2004) 89:351–356.
  • •A comprehensive study on the antimalarial efficacy of different antibiotics.
  • CHAMBERS JA: Military aviators, special operations forces, and causal malaria prophylaxis. Mil. Med. (2003) 168:1001–1006.
  • AWAD MI, ALKADRU AM, BEHRENS RH, BARAKA OZ, ELTAYEB IB: Descriptive study on the efficacy and safety of artesunate suppository in combination with other antimalarials in the treatment of severe malaria in Sudan. Am.1. Trop. Med. Hyg. (2003) 68:153–158.
  • SCHUHWERK M, BEHRENS RH: Doxycycline as first line malarial prophylaxis: how safe is it? 1. Travel Med. (1998) 5:102.
  • MEDICINES FOR MALARIA VENTURE. (2003) Annual report 2003.
  • LELL B, KREMSNER PG: Clindamycin as an antimalarial drug: review of clinical trials. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2002) 46:2315–2320.
  • •A comprehensive review on the antimalarial activity of clindamycin.
  • ADEHOSSI E, PAROLA P, FOUCAULT C et al: Three-day quinine-clindamycin treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria imported from the tropics. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:1173.
  • RAMHARTER M, NOEDL H, WINKLER H et al.: LI vitro activity and interaction of clindamycin combined with dihydroartemisinin against Plasmodium fakiparum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:3494–3499.
  • WISTROM J, NORRBY SR, MYHRE EB et al.: Frequency of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in 2462 antibiotic-treated hospitalized patients: a prospective study. Antimicrob. Chemother. (2001) 47:43–50.
  • MAGERLEIN BJ: Lincomycin. 14. An improved synthesis and resolution of the antimalarial agent, 1'-demethy1-4'-depropy1-4'-(R)- and -(5)-pentylclindamycin hydrochloride (U-24, 729A)../. Med. Chem. (1972) 15:1255–1259.
  • BIRKENMEYER RD, KROLL SJ, LEWIS C, STERN KF, ZURENKO GE: Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of clindamycin analogues: pirlimycin, 1,2 a potent antibacterial agent. J. Med. Chem. (1984) 27:216–223.
  • ANDERSEN SL, OLOO AJ, GORDON DM et al: Successful double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled field trial of azithromycin and doxycycline as prophylaxis for malaria in western Kenya. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1998) 26:146–150.
  • TAYLOR WR, RICHIE TL, FRYAUFF DJ et al.: Malaria prophylaxis using azithromycin: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1999) 28:74–81.
  • •In-depth study on the prophylactic potential of azithromycin.
  • PUKRITTAYAKAMEE S, CLEMENS R, CHANTRA A et al: Therapeutic responses to antibacterial drugs in vivax malaria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. (2001) 95:524–528.
  • ANDERSON SL, BERMAN J, KUSCHNER R et al: Prophylaxis of Plasmodium fakiparum malaria with azithromycin administered to volunteers. Ann. Intern. Med. (1995) 123:771–773.
  • RANQUE S, BADIAGA S, DELMONT J, BROUQUI P: Triangular test applied to the clinical trial of azithromycin against relapses in Plasmodium vivax infections. Malar. J. (2002) 1:13.
  • MILHOUS WK: Development of new drugs for chemoprophylaxis of malaria. Med. Trop. (Mars). (2001) 61:48–50.
  • TAYLOR WR, RICHIE TL, FRYAUFF DJ et al: Tolerability of azithromycin as malaria prophylaxis in adults in northeast Papua, Indonesia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:2199–2203.
  • NA-BANGCHANG K, KANDA T, TIPAWANGSO P et al: Activity of artemether-azithromycin versus artemether-doxycycline in the treatment of multiple drug resistant falciparum malaria. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health (1996) 27:522–525.
  • DE VRIES PI, LE NH, LE TD et al: Short course of azithromycirdartesunate against falciparum malaria: no full protection against recrudescence. Trop. Med. Lit. Health (1999) 4:407–408.
  • KRUDSOOD S, SILACHAMROON U, WILAIRATANA P et al.: A randomized clinical trial of combinations of artesunate and azithromycin for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium fakiparum malaria in Thailand. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health (2000) 31:801–807.
  • KRUDSOOD S, BUCHACHART K, CHALERMRUT K et al: A comparative clinical trial of combinations of dihydroartemisinin plus azithromycin and dihydroartemisinin plus mefloquine for treatment of multidrug resistant falciparum malaria. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health (2002) 33:525–531.
  • OHRT C, WILLINGMYRE GD, LEE P, KNIRSCH C, MILHOUS W: Assessment of azithromycin in combination with other antimalarial drugs against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2002) 46:2518–2524.
  • FIDOCK DA, ROSENTHAL PJ, CROFT SL, BRUN R, NWAKA S: Antimalarial drug discovery: efficacy models for compound screening. Nat. Rev Drug Discov. (2004) 3:509–520.
  • BRANDLING-BENNETT AD, OLOO AJ, KHAN B, WATKINS WM: Failure of erythromycin to improve chloroquine treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Kenya. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. (1988) 82:363–365.
  • STROMBERG A, BJORKMAN A: Ciprofloxacin does not achieve radical cure of Plasmodium falciparum infection in Sierra Leone. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. (1992) 86:373.
  • WATT G, SHANKS GD, EDSTEIN MD et al: Ciprofloxacin treatment of drug-resistant falciparum malaria. J. Infect. Dis. (1991) 164:602–604.
  • MCCLEAN KL, HITCHMAN D, SHAFRAN SD: Nornoxacin is inferior to chloroquine for falciparum malaria in northwestern Zambia: a comparative clinical trial. J. Infect. Dis. (1992) 165:904–907.
  • TRIPATHI KD, SHARMA AK, VALECHA N, KULPATI DD: Curative efficacy of norfloxacin in falciparum malaria. Indian J. Med. Res. (1993) 97:176–178.
  • URBASCHEK R, MANNEL DN, URBANCZIK R: Isoniazid protects mice against endotoxin lethality without influencing tumor necrosis factor synthesis and release. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1991) 35:1666–1668.
  • PUKRITTAYAKAMEE S, PRAKONGPAN S, WANWIMOLRUK S et al: Adverse effect of rifampin on quinine efficacy in uncomplicated falciparum malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:1509–1513.
  • MISSINOU MA, BORRMANN S, SCHINDLER A et al.: Fosmidomycin for malaria. Lancet (2002) 360:1941–1942.
  • ••This is the first clinical study onfosmidomycin against malaria.
  • LELL B, RUANGWEERAYUT R, WIESNER J et al: Fosmidomycin, a novel chemotherapeutic agent for malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:735–738.
  • BORRMANN S, ADEGNIKA AA, MATSIEGUI PB et al: Fosmidomycin-clindamycin for Plasmodium falciparum infections in African children.' Infect. Dis. (2004) 189:901–908.
  • •Establishes the efficacy of a fosmidomycin-clindamycin combination.
  • SUTHERLAND CJ, ALLOUECHE A, CURTIS J et al.: Gambian children successfully treated with chloroquine can harbor and transmit Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes carrying resistance genes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. (2002) 67:578–585.
  • VON SEIDLEIN L, MILLIGAN P, PINDER M et al.: Efficacy of artesunate plus pyrimethamine-sulphadoxine for uncomplicated malaria in Gambian children: a double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet (2000) 355:352–357.
  • HALLETT RL, SUTHERLAND CJ, ALEXANDER N et al.: Combination therapy counteracts the enhanced transmission of drug-resistant malaria parasites to mosquitoes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2004) 48:3940–3943.
  • VAN DOOREN GG, SU V, D'OMBRAIN MC, MCFADDEN GI: Processing of an apicoplast leader sequence in Plasmodium fakiparum and the Identification of a putative leader cleavage enzyme. J. Biol. Chem. (2002) 277:23612–23619.
  • WRENGER C, MULLER S: The human malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum has distinct organelle-specific lipoylation pathways. Ma Microbial. (2004) 53:103–113.
  • THOMSEN-ZIEGER N, SCHACHTNER J, SEEBER F: Apicomplexan parasites contain a single lipoic acid synthase located in the plastid. FEBS Lett. (2003) 547:80–86.
  • SEEBER F, ALIVERTI A, ZANETTI G: The plant-type ferredoxin-NADP' reductase/ferredoxin redox system as a possible drug target against apicomplexan human parasites. Curr. Pharm. Design (2004) In press.
  • MCCONKEY GA: Targeting the shikimate pathway in the malaria parasite Plasmodium fakiparum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1999) 43:175–177.

Websites

  • http://plasmodb.org The Plasmodium Genome Resource (2004).
  • http://toxodb.org The Toxoplasma Genome Resource (2003).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.