When science is not enough – a risk/benefit profile of thiomersal-containing vaccines

Bibliography

• GRANDJEAN P, WEIHE P, WHITE R et al.: Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methyl mercury. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. (1997) 19(6):417-428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLARKSON TW, MAGOS L, MYERS GJ: The toxicology of mercury –current exposures and clinical manifestations. N. Engl. J. Med. (2003) 349(18):1731-1737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HARADA Y: Congenital (or Fetal) Minamata disease. In: Study Group of Minamata Disease Editors. Minamata Disease. Japan; Kumamoto University (1968):93-118.
   Google Scholar
• BAKIR F, DAMLUGI SF, AMIN-ZAKI L et al.: Methylmercury poisoning. In: Iraq. Science (1973) 181:230-241.
   Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Environmental Health Criteria 101 Methylmercury: World Health Organization International Programme on Chemical Safety, Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organization (1990).
   Google Scholar
• LUCIER G, BOYER R: Report of the workshop proceedings of conference organized by the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources, Office and Science and Technology Policy, the White House, November 18-20, 1998. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (1998).
   Google Scholar
• HARADA M: Minamata disease: Methyl mercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. (1995) 25:1-24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHOI BH, LAPHAM LW, AMIN-ZAKI L, SALEEM T: Abnormal neuronal migration, deranged cerebral cortical organization and diffuse white matter astrocytosis of human fetal brain: A major effect of methylmercury poisoning in utero. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neuro. (1978) 87(6):719-733.
   Google Scholar
• MAHAFFEY KR, RICE GE: An assessment of exposure to mercury in the United States: Mercury study report to Congress. US Environmental Protection Agency (1997) Document EPA-452/R-97-006.
   Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Toxicological profile for mercury: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Atlanta (GA) (1999).
   Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Action level for mercury in fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and other aquatic animals: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (US), Food and Drug Administration. Federal Register (1979) 44:3990.
   Google Scholar
• CLEMENTS CJ, BALL LK, BALL R, PRATT D: Thiomersal in vaccines. (Correspondence). Lancet (2000) 355:1279-1280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: US Pharmacopeia 24, Rockville, MD: US Pharmacopeial Convention (1999):1644.
   Google Scholar
• BERNARD S, ENAYATI A, REDWOOD L, ROGER H, BINSTOCK T: Autism: a novel form of mercury poisoning. Med. Hypotheses (2001) 56(4):462-471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLARKSON TW: The three modern faces of mercury. Environ. Health Perspect. (2002) 110(Suppl. 1):11-23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KJELLSTROM T, KENNEDY P, WALLIS S et al.: Physical and mental development of children with prenatal exposure to mercury from fish. Stage 2: Interviews and psychological tests at age 6. National Swedish Environmental Protection Board (1989) Report 2642 (Solna, Sweden).
   Google Scholar
• GRANDJEAN P, WEIHE P, WHITE RF, DEBES F: Cognitive performance of children prenatally exposed to ‘safe’ levels of methyl mercury. Environ. Res. (1998) 77:165-172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JACOBSON JL: Contending with contradictory data in a risk assessment context: The case of methylmercury. J. Neurotoxicol. (2001) 22:667-675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DAVIDSON PW, MYERS GJ, COX C, SHAMLAYE CF, CLARKSON TW: The Seychelles child development study: background, design and results through 66 months of age. 6th International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant, October 15-19, Minamata, Japan (2001).
   Google Scholar
• MYERS GJ, DAVIDSON PW, PALUMBO D, COX C, SHAMLAYE CF, CLARKSON TW: The Seychelles child development study: Testing and results at 107 months of age. 6th International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant, October 15-19, Minamata, Japan (2001).
   Google Scholar
• JUHLSHAMN K, ANDERSEN A, RINGSDAL O, MORKORE J: Trace elements in the Faroe Islands I. Element levels in edible parts of pilot whales (Globicephalus meleanus). Sci. Total Environ. (1987) 65:53-62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury: National Research Council, Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury. National Academy Press Washington, DC (2000).
   Google Scholar
• NIEHS EXPERT GROUP: Scientific issues relevant to assessment of health effects from exposure to methyl mercury. Report on workshop organized by Committee on Environment & Natural Resources and Office of Science and Technology Policy, The White House. November 18-20 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• MITCHELL JW, KJELLSTROM TE, REEVES RL: Mercury in take-away fish in New Zealand. N. Z. Med. J. (1982) 95:112-114.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MAGOS L, BROWN AW, SPARROW S, BAILEY E, SNOWDEN RT, SKIPP WR: The comparative toxicology of ethyl and methyl mercury. Arch. Toxicol. (1985) 57:260-267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COX NH, FORSYTH A: Thimerosal allergy and vaccination reactions. Contact Dermatitis (1988) 18(4):229-233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAGAN DG, PRITCHARD JS, CLARKSON TW, GREENWOOD MR: Organ mercury levels in infants with omphaloceles treated with organic mercurial antiseptic. Arch. Dis. Child. (1977) 52:962-964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MATHESON DS, CLARKSON TW, GELFAND EW: Mercury toxicity (acrodynia) induced by long-term injection of gammaglobulin. J. Pediatr. (1980) 97:153-155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROHYANS J, WALSON PD, WOOD GA, MACDONALD WA: Mercury toxicity following merthiolate ear irrigations. J. Pediatr. (1994) 104:311-313.
   Google Scholar
• PFAB R, MUCKTER H, ROIDER G, ZILKER T: Clinical Course of Severe Poisoning with Thiomersal. Clin. Toxicol. (1996) 34:453-460.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DAVIDSON PW, MYERS GJ, COX C et al.: Effects of prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption on neurodevelopment. Outcomes at 66 months of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study. JAMA (1998) 280(8):701-707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAGOS L: Review on the toxicity of ethyl mercury, including its presence as a preservative in biological and pharmaceutical products. J. Appl. Toxicol. (2001) 21:1-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PICHICHERO ME, CERNICHIARI E, LOPREIATO J, TREANOR J: Mercury concentrations and metabolism in infants receiving vaccines containing thiomersal: a descriptive study. Lancet (2002) 360:1737-1741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BURBACHER TM, SHEN DD, LIBERATO N, GRANTKS, CERNICHIARI E, CLARKSON T: Comparison of Blood and Brain Mercury Levels in Infant Monkeys Exposed to Methyl mercury or Vaccines Containing Thimerosal. Environmental Health Perspectives. National Institutes of Environmental Health Sciences, 21 April (2005).
   Google Scholar
• STAJICH GV, LOPEZ GP, HARRY SW, SEXSON WR: Iatrogenic exposure to mercury after hepatitis B vaccination in preterm infants. J. Pediatr. (2000) 136(5):679-681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YOSHIDA M, OHATA H, YAMAUCHI Y et al.: Age-dependent changes in metallothionein levels in liver and kidney of the Japanese. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. (1998) 65:167-173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLARKSON TW: The pharmacology of mercury compounds. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. (1972) 12:375-406.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CLARKSON TW: Mercury: major issues in environmental health. Environ. Health Perspect. (1993) 100:31-38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAGOS L: Neurotoxic character of thimerosal and the allometric extrapolation of adult clearance half-time to infants. J. Appl. Toxicol. (2003) 23:263-269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ANDREWS N, MILLER E, GRANT A, STOWE J, OSBORNE V, TAYLOR B: Thimerosal exposure in infants and developmental disorders: a retrospective cohort study in the United Kingdom does not support a causal association. Pediatrics (2004) 114(3):584-591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HERON J, GOLDING J: ALSPAC Study Team. Thimerosal exposure in infants and developmental disorders: a prospective cohort study in the United Kingdom does not support a causal association. Pediatrics (2004) 114(3):577-583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HVIID A, STELLFELD M, WOHLFAHRT J, MELBYE M: Association between thimerosal-containing vaccine and autism. JAMA (2003) 290(13):1763-1766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MADSEN KM, LAURITSEN MB, PEDERSEN CB et al.: Thimerosal and the occurrence of autism: negative ecological evidence from Danish population-based data. Pediatrics (2003) 112(3 Pt 1):604-606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VERSTRAETEN T, DAVIS RL, DESTEFANO F et al.: Vaccine Safety Datalink Team. Safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: a two-phased study of computerized health maintenance organization databases. Pediatrics (2003) 112(5):1039-1048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEHR-GREEN P, TULL P, STELLFELD M, MORTENSON PB, SIMPSON D: Autism and thimerosal-containing vaccines: lack of consistent evidence for an association. Am. J. Prev. Med. (2003) 25(2):101-106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GEIER MR, GEIER DA: Neurodevelopmental disorders after thimerosal-containing vaccines: a brief communication. Exp. Biol. Med. (2003) 228(6):660-664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GEIER DA, GEIER MR: A comparative evaluation of the effects of MMR immunization and mercury doses from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines on the population prevalence of autism. Med. Sci. Monit. (2004) 10(3):PI33-PI39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GEIER DA, GEIER MR: An assessment of the impact of thimerosal on childhood neurodevelopmental disorders. Pediatr. Rehabil. (2003) 6(2):97-102.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GEIER MR, GEIER DA: Thimerosal in Childhood Vaccines, Neurodevelopmental Disorders, and Heart Disease in the United States. J. Am. Phys. Surg. (2003) 8(1):6-11.
   Google Scholar
• GEIER DA, GEIER MR: A two-phase epidemiological study of the safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: a follow-up analysis. Med. Sci. Monit. (2005) 11(4):CR160-CR1170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GEIER DA, GEIER MR: Neurodevelopmental disorders following thiomersal-containing childhood immunizations: a follow-up analysis. Int. J. Toxicol. (2004) 23(6):369-376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MANN JR: Questions about thimerosal remain. Exp. Biol. Med. (2003) 228(9):991-992.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury: National Research Council Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury. National Academy Press (2000) Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Immunization Safety Review: Thimerosal – Containing Vaccines and Neuro-developmental Disorders. Stratton K, Gable Am McCormick MC (Eds), National Academy Press Washington DC (2001).
   Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Immunization Safety Review Committee Institute of Medicine. Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism. National Academy Press Washington (2004).
   Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety, 20-21 June, 2002. Wkly. Epidem. Rec. (2002) 77(47):389-394.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Thiomersal as a vaccine preservative. Wkly. Epidem. Rec. (2000) 75:12-16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Strategic Advisory Group of Experts. Vaccines and Biologicals. Part I. Wkly. Epidem. Rec. (2001) 76(48):373-380.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WEISSERK, BAUER K, VOLKERS P, KELLER-STANISLAWSKI B: Thiomersal in vaccines. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz (2004) 47(12):1165-1174.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Statement on Thimerosal. An Advisory Committee Statement (ACS): National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI). Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. (2005) 29:1-10.
   Google Scholar
• BIGHAM M, COPES R, SROUR L: Exposure to thimerosal in vaccines used in Canadian infant immunization programs, with respect to risk of neurodevelopmental disorders. Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. (2002) 28(9):69-80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BERNARD S, ENAYATI A, ROGER H, BINSTOCK T, REDWOOD L: The role of mercury in the pathogenesis of autism. Mol. Psychiatry (2002) 7(Suppl. 2):S42-S43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BERNARD S: Association between thimerosal-containing vaccine and autism. JAMA (2004) 291(2):180.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BLAXILL MF, REDWOOD L, BERNARD S: Thimerosal and autism? A plausible hypothesis that should not be dismissed. Med. Hypotheses (2004) 62(5):788-794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCMAHON WM: Review: vaccines containing thimerosal are not associated with autistic spectrum disorders in children. Evid. Based Ment. Health (2005) 8(1):23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BUESCHER JJ: Vaccinations containing thimerosal do not increase rates of autism. J. Fam. Pract. (2004) 53(2):94-96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHEZ MG, CHIN K, HUNG PC: Immunizations, immunology, and autism. Semin. Pediatr. Neurol. (2004) 11(3):214-217.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• FRANKISH H: Report finds no link between thimerosal and neurodevelopmental disorders. Lancet (2001) 358(9288):1163.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HAYNEY MS: Vaccine safety: no link between thimerosal and autism. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc (Wash DC) (2004) 44(6):725-726.
   Google Scholar
• JICK H, KAYE JA: Autism and DPT vaccination in the United Kingdom. N. Engl. J. Med. (2004) 350(26):2722-2723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCCORMICK MC: The autism ‘epidemic’: impressions from the perspective of immunization safety review. Ambul. Pediatr. (2003) 3(3):119-120.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NELSON KB, BAUMAN ML: Thiomersal and autism? Pediatrics (2003) 111:674-679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OFFIT P, GOLDEN J: Thimerosal and autism. Mol. Psychiatry (2004) 9(7):644; author reply 645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PARKER SK, SCHWARTZ B, TODD J, PICKERING LK: Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autistic spectrum disorder: a critical review of published original data. Pediatrics (2004) 114(3):793-804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STOKSTAD E: Epidemiology. Vaccine-autism link dealt blow. Science (2003) 301(5639):1454-1455.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BALL LK, BALL R, PRATT RD: An assessment of thimerosal use in childhood vaccines. Pediatrics (2001) 107(5):1147-1154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIGHAM M, COPES R: Thiomersal in vaccines: balancing the risk of adverse effects with the risk of vaccine-preventable disease. Drug Saf. (2005) 28(2):89-101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLEMENTS CJ, BALL LK, BALL R, PRATT RD: Thiomersal in vaccines: is removal warranted? Drug Saf. (2001) 24(8):567-574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLEMENTS CJ: The evidence for the safety of thiomersal in newborn and infant vaccines. Vaccine (2004) 22(15-16):1854-1861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COLEMAN E: Ethylmercury in vaccines. Pediatrics (2003) 111(4 Pt 1):922-923.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• COLMAN E: Mercury in infants given vaccines containing thiomersal. Lancet (2003) 361(9358):698 (correspondence).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• FREED GL, ANDREAE MC, COWAN AE, KATZ SL: The process of public policy formulation: the case of thimerosal in vaccines. Pediatrics (2002) 109(6):1153-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALSEY NA, GOLDMAN LR: Mercury in infants given vaccines containing thiomersal. Lancet (2003) 361(9358):698-699.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HALSEY NA: Limiting infant exposure to thimerosal in vaccines and other sources of mercury. JAMA (1999) 282(18):1763-1766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HALSEY NA, GOLDMAN L: Balancing risks and benefits: Primum non nocere is too simplistic. Pediatrics (2001) 108(2):466-467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HUMISTON SG: The stubborn facts of vaccine safety. Pediatr. Ann. (2001) 30(7):385-390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JENSON HB: How harmful are additives in childhood vaccines? Postgrad. Med. (2002) 111(5):87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MILLER JL: Elimination of thimerosal from vaccines set as goal. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. (1999) 56(16):1589-1593.
   Google Scholar
• OFFIT PA: Preventing harm from thimerosal in vaccines. JAMA (2000) 283(16):2104; author’s reply 2105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PLESS R, RISHER JF: Mercury, infant neurodevelopment and vaccination. J. Pediatr. (2000) 136(5):571-573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PLOTKIN SA: Preventing harm from thimerosal in vaccines. JAMA (2000) 283(16):2104-2105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WESTPHAL G, HALLIER E: Mercury in infants given vaccines containing thiomersal. Lancet (2003) 361(9358):699.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KNEZEVIC I, GRIFFITHS E, REIGEL F et al.: Thiomersal in vaccines: a regulatory perspective. WHO Consultation, Geneva, 2002 April 15-16. Vaccine (2004) 22:1836-1841.
   Google Scholar
• COURY DL, NASH PL: Epidemiology and etiology of autistic spectrum disorders difficult to determine. Pediatr. Ann. (2003) 32(10):696-700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NO AUTHORS LISTED: Thiomersal: neuro-behavioural studies in animal models. Wkly. Epidem. Rec. (2005) 80:3-7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CLEMENTS CJ, WESSELINGH SL: Vaccine presentations and delivery technologies – what does the future hold? Expert Rev. Vaccines (2005) 4(3):281-287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar