Detecting recurrent bladder cancer: new methods and biomarkers

References

• Papers of special note have been highlighted as:
   Google Scholar
• • of interest
   Google Scholar
• •• of considerable interest
   Google Scholar
• Landis SH, Murray T, Bolden S, Wingo PA. Cancer Statistics, 1999. Ca-A Cancer J. Clin. 49, 8–31 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Foresman WH, Messing EM. Bladder cancer: natural history, tumor markers and early detection strategies. Semin. Surg. Oncol.13, 299–306 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Halachmi S, Linn JF, Amiel GE, Moskovitz B, Nativ O. Urine cytology, tumor markers and bladder cancer. Br. J. Urol. 82, 647–654 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Lynch CF, Cohen MB. Urinary system. Cancer 75(Suppl.), 316–319 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Koss LG. Diagnostic Cytology of the Urinary Tract. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia, USA, (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal DL. Urologic cytology. In: Practical Cytopathology. Astarita RWED (Ed.), Churchill Livingstone, New York, USA, 303–336 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Brown FM. Urine cytology. Is it still the gold standard for screening? Urol. Clin. North Am. 27, 25–37 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Epstein JI, Amin MB, Reuter VR, Mostofi FK. The World Health Organization/ International Society of Urological Pathology consensus classification of urothelial (transitional cell) neoplasms of the urinary bladder. Bladder Consensus Conference Committee. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 22, 1435–1448 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Shenoy UA, Colby TV, Schumann GB. Reliability of urinary cytodiagnosis in urothelial neoplasms. Cancer 56, 2041–2045 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Raab SS, Lenel JC, Cohen MB. Low grade transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Cytologic diagnosis by key features as identified by logistic regression analysis. Cancer 74, 1621–1626 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Maier U, Simak R, Neuhold N. The clinical value of urinary cytology: 12 years of experience with 615 patients. J. Clin. Pathol. 48, 314–317 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Hughes JH, Raab SS, Cohen MB. The cytologic diagnosis of low-grade transitional cell carcinoma. Rev. Pathol. Cytopathol. (2001). (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• Murphy WM. Current status of urinary cytology in the evaluation of bladder neoplasms. Hum. Pathol. 21, 886–896 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raab SS, Slagel DD, Jensen CS et al. Transitional cell carcinoma: cytologic criteria to improve diagnostic accuracy. Mod. Pathol. 9, 225–232 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tut VM, Hildreth AJ, Kumar M, Mellon JK. Does voided urine cytology have biological significance? Br. J. Urol. 82, 655–659 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiener HG, Mian CH, Haitel A, Pycha A, Schatzl G, Marberger M. Can urine bound diagnostic tests replace cystoscopy in the management of bladder cancer? J. Urol.
   Google Scholar
• , 1876–1880 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• •• In this study, immunological markers are superior to cytological evaluation and image analysis for detecting low-grade transitional cell carcinoma, but they have low specificity and sensitivity in grade 3 transitional cell carcinoma. The authors conclude that urine-bound diagnostic tools cannot replace cystoscopy.
   Google Scholar
• Buchardt M, Burchardt T, Shabsigh A, De La Taille A, Benson MC, Sawczuk I. Current concepts in biomarker technology for bladder cancers. Clin. Chem. 46, 595–605 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• •• In this review, the authors report that, although urine cytology and cystoscopy are still the standard practice, many candidate biomarkers for TCC are emerging and being adopted into clinical practice. They conclude that further research and better understanding of the biology of bladder cancer, improved diagnostic techniques and standardized interpretation are essential steps to develop reliable biomarkers.
   Google Scholar
• Han M, Schoenberg MP. The use of molecular diagnostics in bladder cancer. Urol. Oncol. 5, 87–92 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •• The authors report that with advances in molecular biology and biochemistry, many diagnostic assays have been developed to supplement cystoscopy and these assays show great promise to reduce required surveillance and improve the quality of life for bladder cancer patients.
   Google Scholar
• Sarosdy MF, de Vere White RW, Soloway MS et al. Results of a multicenter trial using the BTA test to monitor for and diagnose recurrent bladder cancer. J. Urol. 154, 379–383 (1995).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DHallewin MA, Baert L. Initial evaluation of the bladder tumor antigen test and superficial bladder cancer. J. Urol. 155, 475–476 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ianari A, Sternberg CN, Rossetti A et al. Results of Bard BTA test in monitoring patients with a history of transitional cell cancer of the bladder. Urology 49, 786–789 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyh H, Mazeman E. Bard BTA test compared with voided urine cytology in the diagnosis of recurrent bladder cancer. Eur. Urol. 32, 425–428 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyanaga N, Akaza H, Kameyama S et al. Significance of the BTA test in bladder cancer: a multicenter trial. Int. J. Urol. 4, 557–560 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Van der Poel HG, Van Balken MR, Schamhart DH et al. Bladder wash cytology, quantitative cytology and the qualitative BTA test in patients with superficial bladder cancer. Urology 51, 44–50 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman RL, Bagley D, Hawthorne C, Bibbo M. Utility of the Bard BTA test in detecting upper urinary tract transitional cell carcinoma. Urology 51, 956–958 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbate I, DIntrono A, Cardo G et al. Comparison of nuclear matrix protein 22 and bladder tumor antigen in urine of patients with bladder cancer. Anticancer Res. 18, 3803–3805 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Schamhart DH, de Reijke TM, van der Poel HG et al. The Bard BTA test: its mode of action, sensitivity and specificity, compared to cytology of voided urine, in the diagnosis of superficial bladder cancer. Eur. Urol. 34, 99–106 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Ramakumar S, Bhuiyan J, Besse JA et al. Comparison of screening methods in the detection of bladder cancer. J. Urol. 161, 388–394 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• • In a study of multiple detection strategies, these authors found that urinary telomerase had the highest combination of sensitivity and specificity (70 and 99%, respectively) for bladder cancer screening. It was the strongest predictor with superior accuracy in patients with grade 1 noninvasive tumors (pTa) and extremely useful in patients with carcinoma in situ. Telomerase appears to be promising and outperformed cytology, BTA Stat, NMP
   Google Scholar
• FDP, chemoluminescent hemoglobin and hemoglobin dipstick in the prediction of bladder cancer.
   Google Scholar
• Nasuti JF, Gomella LG, Ismail M, Bibbo M. Utility of the BTA Stat Test Kit for bladder cancer screening. Diagn. Cytopathol. 21, 27–29 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raitanen MP, Marttila T, Kaasinen E, Rintala E, Aine R, Tammela TL. Sensitivity of human complement factor H related protein (BTA stat) test and voided urine cytology in the diagnosis of bladder cancer. J. Urol. 163, 1689–1692 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mian C, Lodde M, Haitel A, Egarter Vigl E, Marberger M, Pycha A. Comparison of two qualitative assays, the UBC rapid test and the BTA stat test, in the diagnosis of urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder. Urology 56, 228–231 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Serretta V, Pomara G, Rizzo I, Esposito E. Urinary BTA-stat, BTA-trak and NMP22 in surveillance after TUR of recurrent superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Eur. Urol. 38, 419–425 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Hughes JH, Cohen MB. Nuclear matrix proteins and their potential applications to diagnostic pathology. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 111, 267–274 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soloway MS, Briggman V, Carpinito GA et al. Use of new tumor marker, urinary NMP22, in the detection of occult or rapidly recurring transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract following surgical treatment. J. Urol. 156, 363–367 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Miyanage N, Akaza H, Ishikawa S et al. Clinical evaluation of nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP 22) in urine as a novel marker for urothelial cancer. Eur. Urol. 31, 163–168 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Witjes JA, va der Poel HG, van Balken MR, Debruyne FM, Schalken JA. Urinary NMP22 and karyometry in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with superficial bladder cancer. Eur. Urol. 33, 387–391 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Serretta A, Lo Presti D, Vasile P, Gange E, Esposito E, Menozzi I. Urinary NMP22 for the detection of recurrence after transurethral resection of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: experience on 137 patients. Urology 52, 793–796 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stampfer DS, Carpinito GA, Rodriguez- Villanueva J et al. Evaluation of NMP22 in the detection of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. J. Urol. 159, 394–398 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Mian C, Lodde M, Haitel A, Vigl EE, Marberger M, Pycha A. Comparison of the monoclonal UBC-ELISA test and the NMP22 ELISA test for the detection of urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder. Urology 55, 223–226 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez Garcia FJ, Escaf Barmadah S, Fernandez Gomez JM, Rodriguez Martinez JJ, Martin Benito JL. Determination of NMP 22 as recurrence marker in bladder cancer. Preliminary study. Arch. Esp. Urol. 53, 305–312 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Menendez V, Filella X, Molina R et al. Usefulness of urinary nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP 22) as a marker for transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Anticancer Res. 20(2b), 1169–1172 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Konety BR, Nguyen T-S T, Dhir R et al. Detection of bladder cancer using a novel nuclear matrix protein, BLCA-4. Clin. Cancer Res. 6, 2618–2625 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Landman J, Chang Y, Kavaler E, Droller MJ, Liu BC. Sensitivity and specificity of NMP 22, telomerase and BTA in the detection of human bladder cancer. Urology 52, 398–402 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Hughes JH, Katz RL, Rodriguez-Villanueva J et al. Urinary matrix protein 22 (NMP 22): examination for the detection of recurrent transitional cell-carcinoma of the bladder. Diagn. Cytopathol. 20, 285–290 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Gelmini S, Crisci A, Salvadori B et al. Comparison of telomerase activity in bladder carcinoma and exfoliated cells collected in urine and bladder washings, using a quantitative assay. Clin. Cancer Res. 6, 2771–2776 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• • This study represented the first attempt to correlate telomerase activity in exfoliated cells from urine and bladder washings with the activity in corresponding bladder cancers. Telomerase activity in urine sediment reflected the activity in bladder cancers better than bladder.
   Google Scholar
• Vasef MA, Ross JS, Cohen MB. Telomerase activity in human solid tumors: diagnostic utility and clinical applications. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. (Suppl.) (1999). (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• Muller M, Krause H, Heicappell R, Tischendorf J, Shay JW, Miller K. Comparison of human telomerase RNA and telomerase activity in urine for diagnosis of bladder cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 4, 1949–1954 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshida K, Sugino K, Tahara H. Telomerase activity in bladder carcinoma and its implication for non-invasive diagnosis by detection of exfoliated cancer cells in urine. Cancer 79, 362–366 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Lance, RS, Aldous WK, Blaser J, Thrasher JB. Telomerase activity in solid transitional cell carcinoma, bladder washings and voided urine. Urol. Oncol. 4, 43–49 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Ito H, Kyo S, Kanaya T et al. Detection of human telomerase reverse transcriptase messenger RNA in voided urine samples as a useful diagnostic tool for bladder cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 4, 2801–2810 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee DH, Yang SC, Hong SJ, Chung BH, Kim IY. Telomerase: a potential marker of bladder transitional cell carcinoma in bladder washes. Clin. Cancer Res. 4, 535– 538 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Brentnall TA. Microsatellite instability: shifting concepts in tumorigenesis. Am. J. Pathol. 147, 561–563 (1995).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orntoft TF, Wolf H. Molecular alterations in bladder cancer. Urol. Res. 26, 223–233 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Christensen M, Jensen MA, Wolf H, Orntoft TF. Pronounced microsatellite instability in transitional cell carcinomas from young patients with bladder cancer. Int. J. Cancer 79, 396–401 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi T, Habuchi T, Kakehi Y et al. Clonal and chronological genetic analysis of multifocal cancers of the bladder and upper urinary tract. Cancer Res. 58, 5835–5841 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao L, Schoenberg MP, Scicchitano M et al. Molecular detection of primary bladder cancer by microsatellite analysis. Science 271, 659–662 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner G, Schoenberg MP, Linn JF, Mao L, Sidransky D. Detection of bladder cancer recurrence by microsatellite analysis of urine. Nature Med. 3, 621–624 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• •• This group first demonstrated the novel approach for the detection of primary bladder cancer based on microsatellite analysis of urine DNA. In this study, they tested serial urine samples from 21 patients who had been treated for bladder cancer with 20 polymorphic microsatellite markers in a blinded fashion. They detected recurrent lesions in 10 out of 11 patients and correctly predicted the existence of a neoplastic cell population in the urine of two patients, 4 and 6 months before cystoscopic evidence of the tumor. The assay was negative in 10 of 10 patients who had no evident cancer. The authors concluded that microsatellite analysis of urine sediment represented a novel and potentially powerful clinical tool for the detection of recurrent bladder cancer.
   Google Scholar
• Linn JF, Lango M, Halachmi S, Schoenberg MP, Sidransky D. Microsatellite analysis and telomerase activity in archived tissue and urine samples of bladder cancer patients. Int. J. Cancer 74, 625–629 (1997)
   Google Scholar
• Mourah S, Cussenot O, Vimont V et al. Assessment of microsatellite instability in urine in the detection of transitional-cell carcinoma of the bladder. Int. J. Cancer 79, 629–633 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron A, Mastroeni FR, Moore PS et al. Detection of bladder cancer by semiautomated microsatellite analysis of urine sediment. Adv. Clin. Path. 4, 19–21 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Christensen M, Wolf H, Orntoft TF. Microsatellite alterations in urinary sediments from patients with cystitis and bladder cancer. Int. J. Cancer 85, 614–617 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Hung SC, Linn JF et al. Microsatellite-based cancer detection using capillary array electrophoresis and energytransfer fluorescent primers. Electrophoresis 18, 1742–1749 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leach FS, Hsieh J-T, Molberg K, Saboorian MH, McConnell JD, Sagalowsky AI. Expression of human mismatch repair gene hMSH2. A potential marker for urothelial malignancy. Cancer 88, 2333–2341 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Klein FA, Herr HW, Sogani PC. Detection and follow-up of carcinoma of the urinary bladder by flow cytometry. Cancer 50, 389–395 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Cajulis RS, Haines GK, Frias-Hidvegi D, McVary K, Bacus JW. Cytology, flow cytometry, image analysis and interphase cytogenetics by fluorescence in situ hybridization in the diagnosis of transitional cell carcinoma in bladder washes: a comparative study. Diagn. Cytopathol. 13, 214–224 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Badalament RA, Kimmel M, Gay H. The sensitivity of flow cytometry compared with conventional cytology in the detection of superficial bladder carcinoma. Cancer 59, 2078–2085 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Jankevicius F, Shibayama T, Decken K et al. Dual-parameter immunoflow cytometry in diagnosis and follow-up of patients with bladder cancer. Eur. Urol. 34, 492–499 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De la Roza GL, Hopkovita A, Caraway NP et al. DNA image analysis of urinary cytology: prediction of recurrent transitional cell carcinoma. Mod. Pathol. 9, 571–578 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raitanen MP, Tammela TL, Kalloinen M, Isola J. p53 accumulation, deoxyribonucleic acid ploidy and progression of bladder cancer. J. Urol. 157, 1250–1253 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Mora LB, Nicosia SV, Pow-Sang JM et al. Ancillary techniques in the follow-up of transitional cell carcinoma: a comparison of cytology, histology and deoxyribonucleic acid image analysis cytometry in 91 patients. J. Urol. 156, 49–54 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Richman AM, Mayne ST, Jekel JF, Albertsen P. Image analysis combined with visual cytology in the early detection of recurrent bladder carcinoma. Cancer 82, 1738–1748 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boon ME, Marres EM, van der Poel HG. Combining Quanticyt karyomteric analysis with architectural confocal-aided cytology to prognosticate superficial bladder cancer. Diagn. Cytopathol. 18, 10–17 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Matsuyama H, Bergerheim US, Nilsson I et al. Non-random numeral aberrations of chromosome 7, 9 and 10 in DNA diploid bladder cancer. Cancer Genet. Cytogenet. 77, 118–124 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Sauter G, Gasser TC, Moch H et al. DNA aberrations in urinary bladder cancer detected by flow cytometry and FISH. Urol. Res. 25\(Suppl. 1), S37–43 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Reeder JE, OConnell MJ, Yang Z et al. DNA cytometry and chromosome 9 aberrations by fluorescence in situ hybridization of irrigation specimens from bladder cancer patients. Urology 51(5A Suppl.), 58–61 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Awata S, Sakagami H, Tozawa K, Sasaki S, Ueda K, Kohri K. Aberration of chromosomes 8 and 11 in bladder cancer as detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Urol. Res. 28, 185–190 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Halling KC, King W, Sokolova IA et al. A comparison of cytology and fluorescence in situ hybridization for the detection of urothelial carcinoma. J. Urol. 164, 1768–1775 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shigyo M, Sugano K, Fukayama N et al. Allelic loss on chromosome 9 in bladder cancer tissues and urine samples detected by blunt-end single-strand DNA conformation polymorphism. Int. J. Cancer
   Google Scholar
• , 425–429 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Yokogi H, Wabba Y, Moriyama GN, Igawa M, Ishibe T. Genomic heterogeneity in bladder cancer as detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Br. J. Urol. 78, 699–703 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Liebert M, Seigne J. Characteristics of invasive bladder cancers: histological and molecular markers. Semin. Urol. Oncol. 14, 62–72 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aprikian AG, Sarkis AS, Reuter VE, Cordon-Cardo C, Sheinfeld J. Biological markers of prognosis in transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: current concepts. Semin. Urol. 11, 137–144 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Rotem D, Cassel A, Lindenfeld N et al. Urinary cytokeratin 20 as a marker for transitional cell carcinoma. Eur. Urol. 37, 601–604 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Buchumensky V, Klein A, Zemer R, Kessler OJ, Zimlichman S, Nissenkorn I. Cytokeratin 20: a new marker for early detection of bladder cell carcinoma? J. Urol. 160, 1971–1974 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pariente JL, Brodenave L, Jacob F et al. Analytical and prospective evaluation of urinary cytokeratin 19 fragment in bladder cancer. J. Urol. 163, 1116–1119 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Pariente JL, Bordenave L, Michael P, Latapie MJ, Ducassou D, Le Guillou M. Initial evaluation of CYFRA 21–1 diagnostic performances as a urinary marker in bladder transitional cell carcinoma. J. Urol. 158, 338–341 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Carbayo M, Urrutia M, Silva JM et al. Urinary tissue polypeptide-specific antigen for the diagnosis of bladder cancer. Urology 55, 526–532 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton H, Liebert M, Sakakibra N, Wedemeyer G, Stein J, Washington R. Evaluation of new bladder tumor marker. Urol. Clin. North Am. 18, 509–513 (1991).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huland H, Arndt R, Huland E, Loening T, Steffens M. Monoclonal antibody 486p 3/ 12: a valuable bladder carcinoma marker for immunocytology. J. Urol. 137, 654–659 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Cordon-Cardo C, Wartinger D, Lemaned M, Fair WR, Fradet Y. Immunopathology analysis of human urinary bladder cancer. Am. J. Pathol. 140, 375–385 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Celis JE, Rasmussen HH, Vorum H et al. Bladder squamous cell carcinoma expresses psoriasin and externalizes it to the urine. J. Urol. 155, 2105–2112 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Wilding G, Knabbe C, Zugmaier G, Flanders K. Differential effect of TGF beta on human prostate cancer cells in vitro. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 62, 79–87 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mian C, Pycha A, Wiener HG, Haitel A, Lodde M, Marberger M. Immunocyt: a new tool for detecting transitional cell cancer of the urinary tract. J. Urol. 161, 1486–1489 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lokeshwar VB, Obek C, Pham HT et al. Urinary hyaluronic acid and hyaluronidase: markers for bladder cancer detection and evaluation of grade. J. Urol. 163, 348–356 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lokeshwar VB, Obek C, Soloway MS, Block NL. Tumor-associated hyaluronic acid: a new sensitive and specific urine marker for bladder cancer. Cancer Res. 57, 773–777 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pham HT, Block NL, Lokeshwar VB. Tumor-derived hyaluronidase: a diagnostic urine marker for high-grade bladder cancer. Cancer Res. 57, 778–783 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chopin DK, Caruelle JP, Colombel M et al. Increased immuno-detection of acidic fibroblast growth factor in bladder cancer detectable in urine. J. Urol. 150, 1126–1130 (1993).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravery V, Jouanneau J, Gil Diez S et al. Immunohistochemical detection of acidic fibroblast growth factor in bladder transitional cell carcinoma. Urol. Res. 20, 211–214 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Chow NH, Change CJ, Yeh TM, Chan SH, Tzai TS, Lin JS. Implications of urinary basic fibroblast growth factor excretion in patients with urothelial carcinoma. Clin. Sci. 90, 127–133 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen M, Watanabe H, Budson AE, Richie JP, Folkman J. Elevated levels of angiogenic peptide basic fibroblast growth factor in urine of bladder cancer patients. J. Natl Cancer. Inst. 85, 241–242 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Korman HJ, Peabody JO, Cerny JC, Farah RN, Yao J, Raz A. Autocrine motility factor receptor as a possible urine marker for transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. J. Urol. 155, 347–349 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guirguis R, Schiffmann E, Liu B, Birkbeck D, Engel J, Liotta L. Detection of autocrine motility factor in urine as a marker of bladder cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 80, 1203–1211 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Messing EM, Murphy-Brooks N. Recovery of epidermal growth factor in voided urine of patients with bladder cancer. Urology 44, 502–506 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayamoto H, Kubota Y, Shuin T, Torigoe S, Dobashi Y, Hosaka M. Expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 in human bladder cancer. Cancer 75, 2565–2570 (1995).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bringuier PP, Umbas R, Schaafsma HE, Karthaus HF, Debruyne FM, Schalken JA. Decreased E-cadherin immunoreactivity correlates with poor survival in patients with bladder tumors. Cancer Res. 53, 3241–3245 (1993).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross JS, del Rosario AD, Figi HL, Sheehan C, Fisher HAG, Bui HX. E-cadherin expression in papillary transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder. Hum. Pathol. 26, 940–944 (1995).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross JS, Cheung C, Sheehan C, del Rosario AD, Bui HX, Fisher HAG. E-cadherin celladhesion molecule expression as a diagnostic adjunct in urothelial cytology. Diagn. Cytopathol. 14, 310–315 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Ross JS, del Rosario AD, Bui HX, Kallakury BVS, Okby NT, Figge J. CD44 cell adhesion molecule expression in urinary bladder transitional cell carcinoma. Mod. Pathol. 9, 854–860 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Muller M, Heicappell R, Habermann F, Kaufmann M, Steiner U, Miller K. Expression of CD44v2 in transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder and in urine. Urol. Res. 25, 187–192 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Liebert M, Washington R, Stein J, Wedemeyer G, Grossman H. Expression of the DLAb1 integrin family in bladder cancer. Am. J. Pathol. 144, 1016–1022 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Johnston B, Morales A, Emerson L, Lundie M. Rapid detection of bladder cancer: a comparative study of point of care tests. J. Urol. 158, 2098–2101 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsui Y, Marutsuka K, Asada Y, Osada Y. Prognostic value of urokinase-type plasminogin activator in patients with superficial bladder cancer. Urology 47, 34–37 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lafuente A, Rodriguez A, Gibanel R et al. Limitations in the use of glutathione Stransferase P1 in urine as a marker for bladder cancer. Anticancer Res. 18, 3771–3772 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liggett WH, Sidransky D. Role of the p16 tumor suppressor gene in cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 16, 1197–1206 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Sidransky D, Frost P, Von Eschenbach A, Oyasu R, Preisinger AC, Vogelstein B. Clonal origin of bladder cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 326, 737–740 (1992).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cordon-Cardo C. Cell cycle regulators as prognostic factors for bladder cancer. Eur. Urol. 33\(Suppl. 4), 11–12 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• • The author reviews the cell cyle regulators including cyclins, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors and tumor suppressor genes as markers of cell proliferation and prognosis for patients with both superfiscial and invasive bladder cancer.
   Google Scholar
• Wiman KG. p53: emergency brake and target for cancer therapy. Exp. Cell Res. 237, 14–18 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Esrig D, Elmajian D, Groshen S et al. Accumulation of nuclear p53 and tumor progression in bladder carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 331, 1259–1264 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Hudson MA, Herr HW. Carcinoma in situ of the bladder. J. Urol. 153, 564–572 (1995).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Righi E, Rossi G, Ferrari G et al. Does p53 immunostaining improve diagnostic accuracy in urine cytology? Diagn. Cytopathol. 17, 436–439 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benedict WF. Altered Rb expression as a prognostic clinical marker involved in human bladder tumorigensis. J. Cell. Biochem. 161(Suppl.), 769–771 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Stein JP, Grossfeld GD, Ginsberg DA et al. Prognostic markers in bladder cancer: a contemporary review of the literature. J. Urol. 160, 645–659 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gontero P, Casetta G, Zitella A et al. Evaluation of p53 protein overexpression, Ki67 proliferative activity and mitotic index as markers of tumour recurrence in superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Eur. Urol. 38, 287–296 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Kestler HA. ROC with confidence a Perl program for receiver operator characteristic curves. Comp. Meth. Prog. Biomed. 64, 133–136 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar