References
- Papers of special note have been highlighted as:
- • of interest
- •• of considerable interest
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- Loscher W. Mechanisms of drug resistance in status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2007;48:74–77.
- Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Potential role of drug transporters in the pathogenesis of medically intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2005;46:224–235.
- Zhang C, Zuo Z, Kwan P, et al. In vitro transport profile of carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, eslicarbazepine acetate, and their active metabolites by human P-glycoprotein. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1894–1904.
- Zhang C, Kwan P, Zuo Z, et al. The transport of antiepileptic drugs by Pglycoprotein. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012;64:930–942.
- Ma A, Wang C, Chen Y, et al. P-glycoprotein alters blood-brain barrier penetration of antiepileptic drugs in rats with medically intractable epilepsy. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2013;7:1447–1454.
- Tfelt-Hansen P, Tfelt-Hansen J. Verapamil for cluster headache. Clinical pharmacology and possible mode of action. Headache. 2009;49(1):117–125.
• The authors provide a useful revision of the pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamics and metabolism of verapamil
- Finding information about a drug. Approval, labeling, side effects, and safety information. Food and drug administration. Verapamil hydrochloride. Available from: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=6ae13cb4-0316-40d1-9216-c7d5556aaed3.
- Summers AM, Moore JL, McAuley JW. Use of verapamil as a potential P-glycoprotein inhibitor in a patient with refractory epilepsy. Ann Pharmacother. 2004;38:1631–1634.
- Iannetti P, Spalice A, Parisi P. Calcium-channel blocker verapamil administration in prolonged and refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2005;46:967–969.
• First reported case of resolution of super refractory status epilepticus after verapamil administration
- Iannetti P, Parisi P, Spalice A, et al. Addition of verapamil in the treatment of severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy. Epilepsy Res. 2009;85:89–95.
- Schmitt FC, Dehnicke C, Meencke HJ. Verapamil attenuates the malignant treatment course in recurrent status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;17:565–568.
- Pirker S, Baumgartner C. Termination of refractory focal status epilepticus by the P-glycoprotein inhibitor verapamil. Eur J Neurol. 2011;18:e151.
- Nicita F, Spalice A, Papetti L, et al. Efficacy of verapamil as an adjunctive treatment in children with drug-resistant epilepsy: a pilot study. Seizure. 2014;23(1):36–40.
• First open-label study of add-on verapamil in children with drug-resistant seizures.
- Asadi-Pooya AA, Razavizadegan SM, Abdi-Ardekani A, et al. Adjunctive use of verapamil in patients with refractory temporal lobe epilepsy: a pilot study. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;29(1):150–144.
- Borlot F, Wither RG, Ali A, et al. A pilot double-blind trial using verapamil as adjuvant therapy for refractory seizures. Epilepsy Res. 2014;108(9):1642–1651.
•• First placebo-controlled, double-blinded study of add-on verapamil in drug-resistant seizures
- Wang YH, Jones DR, Hall SD. Differential mechanism-based inhibition of CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 by verapamil. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005;33(5):664–671.
- Sasongko L, Link JM, Muzi M, et al. Imaging P-glycoprotein transport activity at the human blood-brain barrier with positron emission tomography. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;77(6):503–514.
- Langaee TY, Gong Y, Yarandi HN, et al. Association of CYP3A5 polymorphisms with hypertension and antihypertensive response to verapamil. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007;81(3):386–391.
- Kumar A, Tripathi D, Paliwal VK, et al. Role of P-glycoprotein in refractoriness of seizures to antiepileptic drugs in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2015;30(2):223–227.
- Wical BS, Wandorf H Verapamil as adjunctive therapy forseizures in Dravet syndrome. In: Child Neurology Society Meeting, Program and Abstracts. Child Neurology Society; 2013. Austin, TX. pp. 34.
- Brandt C, Bethmann K, Gastens AM, et al. The multiple transporter hypothesis of drug resistance in epilepsy: proof-of-principle in a rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurobiol Dis. 2006;24:202–211.
- Van Vliet EA, Van Schaik R, Edelbroek MP, et al Region-specific overexpression of P-glycoprotein at the blood-brain barrier affects brain uptake of phenytoin in epileptic rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;322:141–147.
- Loscher W, Potschka H. Drug resistance in brain diseases and the role of drug efflux transporters. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005;6:591–602.
• Useful review about mechanisms of drug resistance in brain diseases.
- Wurpel JN, Iyer SN. Calcium channel blockers verapamil and nimodipine inhibit kindling in adult and immature rats. Epilepsia. 1994;35(2):443–449.
- Han DY, Guan BJ, Wang YJ, et al. L-type Calcium Channel Blockers Enhance Trafficking and Function of Epilepsy-associated α1(D219N) Subunits of GABAA Receptors. ACS Chem Biol. 2015;10(9):2135–2148.
- Volk HA, Loescher W. Multidrug resistance in epilepsy: rats with drug-resistant seizures exhibit enhanced brain expression of P-glycoprotein compared with rats with drug-responsive seizures. Brain. 2005;128:1358–1368.
- Sisodiya SM, Lin WR, Harding BN, et al. Drug resistance in epilepsy: expression of drug resistance proteins in common causes of refractory epilepsy. Brain. 2002;125:22–31.
- Liu J, Thom M, Catarino C, et al Neuropathology of the blood-brain barrier and pharmaco-resistance in human epilepsy. Brain. 2012;135:3115–3133.
- Pekcec A, Unkruer B, Schkichtiger J, et al Overexpression of P-glycoprotein in the canine brain following spontaneous status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res. 2009;83:144–151.
- Feldmann M, Koepp M. P-glycoprotein imaging in temporal lobe epilepsy: In vivo PET experiments with the Pgp substrate [11C]-verapamil. Epilepsia. 2012;53(Suppl. 6):60–63.
•• The authors summarize the main studies on this field
- Hendrikse NH, Franssen EJF, Van Der Graaf WTA, et al 99mTc-sestamibi is a substrate for P-glycoprotein and the multidrug resistance-associated protein. Br J Cancer. 1998;77:353–358.
- Bankstahl JP, Bankstahl M, Kuntner C, et al A novel positron emission tomography imaging protocol identifies seizure-induced regional overactivity of P-glycoprotein at the blood–brain barrier. J Neurosci. 2011;31:8803–8811.
- Bauer M, Karch R, Neumann F, et al Assessment of regional differences in tariquidar-induced P-glycoprotein modulation at the human blood–brain barrier. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2010;30:510–515.
- Eyal S, Ke B, Muzi M, et al Regional P-glycoprotein activity and inhibition at the human blood–brain barrier as imaged by positron emission tomography. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2010;87:579–585.
- Bauer M, Karch R, Zeitlinger M, et al. Approaching complete inhibition of P-glycoprotein at the human blood-brain barrier: an (R)-[11C]verapamil PET study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2015;35(5):743–746.
- Feldmann M, Asselin MC, Liu J, et al. P-glycoprotein expression and function in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy: a case-control study. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12(8):777–785.
•• This is a pivotal study for clarification of the role of P-glycoprotein (Pgp) in temporal lobe drug resistant epilepsy
- Langer O, Bauer M, Hammers A, et al. Pharmacoresistance in epilepsy: a pilot PET study with the P-glycoprotein substrate R-[11C] verapamil. Epilepsia. 2007;48:1774–1784.
- Bauer M, Karch R, Zeitlinger M, et al. In vivo P-glycoprotein function before and after epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2014;83(15):1326–1331.
•• The authors give new insights in the role of Pgp in temporal lobe epilepsy.
- Jambroszyk M, Tipold A, Potschka H. Add-on treatment with verapamil in pharmacoresistant canine epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2011;52:284–291.
- Sandow N, Kim S, Raue C, et al. Drug resistance in cortical and hippocampal slices from resected tissue of epilepsy patients: no significant impact of p-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-associated proteins. Front Neurol. 2015;6:30–48.