References
- Papers of special note have been highlighted as:
- • of interest
- •• of considerable interest
- Aoki T, Narumiya S. Prostaglandins and chronic inflammation. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2012;33(6):304–311.
- Marchi N, Granata T, Janigro D. Inflammatory pathways of seizure disorders. Trends Neurosci. 2014;37(2):55–65.
• This excellent review summarizing recent advances in the understanding and treatment of epileptic seizures where inflammatory pathways involving the blood-brain barrier dysfunction play essential roles.
- Janigro D. Are you in or out? Leukocyte, ion, and neurotransmitter permeability across the epileptic blood-brain barrier. Epilepsia. 2012;53(Suppl 1):26–34.
- Vezzani A, Friedman A, Dingledine RJ. The role of inflammation in epileptogenesis. Neuropharmacology. 2013;69:16–24.
- Marchi N, Granata T, Freri E, et al. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory therapy in a model of acute seizures and in a population of pediatric drug resistant epileptics. PLoS One. 2011;6(3):e18200.
- Vezzani A, French J, Bartfai T, et al. The role of inflammation in epilepsy. Nat Rev Neurol. 2011;7(1):31–40.
- Aronica E, Crino PB. Inflammation in epilepsy: clinical observations. Epilepsia. 2011;52(Suppl 3):26–32.
•• A great review mainly introducing the recent clinical observations that support the involvement of the inflammatory responses in the development of epilepsy.
- Vezzani A. Anti-inflammatory drugs in epilepsy: does it impact epileptogenesis? Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2015;14(4):583–592.
- Varvel NH, Jiang J, Dingledine R, Candidate drug targets for prevention or modification of epilepsy. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2015;55:229–247.
•• A recent review discussing the potential drug targets for the disease modification or prevention of the human epilepsy.
- Vezzani A, Dingledine R, Rossetti AO. Immunity and inflammation in status epilepticus and its sequelae: possibilities for therapeutic application. Expert Rev Neurother. 2015;15(9):1081–1092.
• An excellent review focusing on the detrimental roles for inflammation during and after status epilepticus.
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• This research article reported the first-generation of selective antagonists for human EP2 receptor by high-throughput screening and demonstrated that administration of EP2 antagonist TG4-155 is neuroprotective after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in mice.
- Jung KH, Chu K, Lee ST, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, inhibits the altered hippocampal neurogenesis with attenuation of spontaneous recurrent seizures following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis. 2006;23(2):237–246.
- Ivens S, Kaufer D, Flores LP, et al. TGF-beta receptor-mediated albumin uptake into astrocytes is involved in neocortical epileptogenesis. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 2):535–547.
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- Rossetti AO, Lowenstein DH. Management of refractory status epilepticus in adults: still more questions than answers. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(10):922–930.
- Jiang J, Yang MS, Quan Y, et al., Therapeutic window for cyclooxygenase-2 related anti-inflammatory therapy after status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis. 2015;76:126–136.
•• This study identified a therapeutic time window for anti-inflammatory treatment via inhibition of the EP2 receptor that opens approximately two hours after onset of pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in mice.
- Hirata T, Narumiya S. Prostanoid receptors. Chem Rev. 2011;111(10):6209–6230.
- Jiang J, Dingledine R. Prostaglandin receptor EP2 in the crosshairs of anti-inflammation, anti-cancer, and neuroprotection. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2013;34(7):413–423.
- Marcheselli VL, Bazan NG. Sustained induction of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 by seizures in hippocampus. Inhibition by a platelet-activating factor antagonist. J Biol Chem. 1996;271(40):24794–24799.
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- Jiang J, Quan Y, Ganesh T, et al. Inhibition of the prostaglandin receptor EP2 following status epilepticus reduces delayed mortality and brain inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(9):3591–3596.
• This research paper reported the second-generation of selective antagonists for EP2 receptor with improved pharmacokinetics by medicinal chemistry and showed that delayed treatment by EP2 antagonist TG6-10-1 reduces the seizure-induction neuroinflammation, neuronal injury, blood-brain barrier dysfunction and functional deficits after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in mice.
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- Rojas A, Ganesh T, Lelutiu N, et al., Inhibition of the prostaglandin EP2 receptor is neuroprotective and accelerates functional recovery in a rat model of organophosphorus induced status epilepticus. Neuropharmacology. 2015;93:15–27.
•• This study on rats showed that EP2 receptor inhibition within a time window that coincides with the cyclooxygenase-2 induction by organophosphorus compound diisopropyl fluorophosphate is neuroprotective and reduces functional deficits.
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- Citraro R, Leo A, Marra R, et al. Antiepileptogenic effects of the selective COX-2 inhibitor etoricoxib, on the development of spontaneous absence seizures in WAG/Rij rats. Brain Res Bull. 2015;113:1–7.
- Trandafir CC, Pouliot WA, Dudek FE, et al. Co-administration of subtherapeutic diazepam enhances neuroprotective effect of COX-2 inhibitor, NS-398, after lithium pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. Neuroscience. 2015;284:601–610.
- Holtman L, Van Vliet EA, Edelbroek PM, et al. Cox-2 inhibition can lead to adverse effects in a rat model for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2010;91(1):49–56.
- Holtman L, Van Vliet EA, Van Schaik R, et al. Effects of SC58236, a selective COX-2 inhibitor, on epileptogenesis and spontaneous seizures in a rat model for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2009;84(1):56–66.
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- Kaushik MK, Aritake K, Kamauchi S, et al Prostaglandin D(2) is crucial for seizure suppression and postictal sleep. Exp Neurol. 2014;253:82–90.
- Mello CF, Oliveira MS. Commentary on Kaushik et al.: Prostaglandin D2 is crucial for seizure suppression and postictal sleep. Novel evidence supporting a role for prostanoid receptors in seizure control. Exp Neurol. 2014;257:157–161.
- Akarsu ES, Mamuk S, Comert A. Inhibition of pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in rats by prostaglandin D2. Epilepsy Res. 1998;30(1):63–68.
- Yang H, Zhang J, Breyer RM, et al. Altered hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity in mice deficient in the PGE2 EP2 receptor. J Neurochem. 2009;108(1):295–304.
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- Ganesh T, Jiang J, Yang MS, et al. Lead optimization studies of cinnamic amide EP2 antagonists. J Med Chem. 2014;57(10):4173–4184.
- Jiang J, Ganesh T, Du Y, et al. Prostaglandin receptor EP2 antagonists, derivatives, compositions, and uses related thereto. Patent WO2012177618; US20140179750; EP2721011; CA2839956. 2014.
- Ganesh T, Jiang J, Shashidharamurthy R, et al. Discovery and characterization of carbamothioylacrylamides as EP selective antagonists. ACS Med Chem Lett. 2013;4(7):616–621.