33
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

The evolution of antiepileptic drugs for mood stabilization and their main mechanisms of action

&
Pages 107-118 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Regier DA, Boyd JH, Burke JD Jr etal One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Based on five Epidemiologic Catchment Area sites. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 45(11), 977–986 (1988).
  • Weissman MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ etal. Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. JAIVIA 276(4), 293–299 (1996).
  • Angst J, Gamma A. A new bipolar spectrum concept: a brief review. Bipolar Disarlers 4\(Suppl. 1), 11–14 (2002).
  • •Good review of the broadened bipolar spectrum.
  • Akiskal HS. The prevalent clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders: beyond DSM-IV. j Gun. Psychopharmacol 16(2 Suppl. 1), 4S-14S (1996).
  • McElroy SL, Keck PE, Pope HG etal Clinical and research implications of the diagnosis of dysphoric or mixed mania or hypomania. Ainj PFchiatry149(12), 1633–1644 (1992).
  • Swann AC, Bowden CL, Morris D etal Depression during mania. Treatment response to lithium or divalproex. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54(1), 37–42 (1997).
  • Cooke RG, Young LT, Levitt AJ et al Bipolar II: Not so different when morbidity excluded. excluded. Depression 3(3), 154–156 (1995).
  • Bowden CL. Clinical correlates of therapeutic response in bipolar disorder. j Affect. Disarl 67(1-3), 257–265 (2001).
  • Greil W, Ludwig-Mayerhofer W Erazo N eta]. Lithium versus carbamazepine in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorders — a randomised study. J. Affect. Disarl. 43(2), 151–161 (1997).
  • Vestergaard P Treatment and prevention of mania: a Scandinavian perspective. Neutopsychopharmacology7(4), 249–259 (1992).
  • Calabrese JR, Woyshville MJ. Lithium therapy: limitations and alternatives in the treatment of bipolar disorders. Ann. an. PTchiatry7(2), 103–112 (1995).
  • Bourgeois ML, Hantouche EG, Akiskal HS. The Epiman and Epidep french studies of bipolarity. J. Bipolar Disarler 1(1), 13–19 (1997).
  • Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, Sachs GS eta]. Lamotrigine in bipolar depression. APA Annual meeting abstracts, 244.1998. New Research.
  • Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, Sachs GS et al A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine monotherapy in out-patients with bipolar I depression.' Clin. Psychiatry 60,79–88 (1999).
  • •First controlled study demonstarting the antidepressive efficacy of LTG in bipolar I patients.
  • Mishory A, Yaroslavsky Y, Bersudsky Y etal Phenytoin as an antimanic anticonvulsant: a controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry 157(3), 463–465 (2000).
  • Chouinard G. Clonazepam in acute and maintenance treatment of bipolar affective disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry48(Suppl.), 29–37 (1987).
  • Bradwejn J, Shriqui C, Koszycki D et al Double-blind comparison of the effects of donazepam and lorazeparn in acute mania. Clin. Bychophalmacol 10(6), 403–408 (1990).
  • Edwards R, Stephenson U, Hewett T Clonazepam in acute mania: a double-blind trial. Aust. NZI. PTchiatry25(2), 238–242 (1991).
  • Bottai T, Hue B, Hillaire-Buys D eta]. Clonazepam in acute mania: time-blind evaluation of clinical response and concentrations in plasma. J. Affect. Disord 36(1–2), 21–27 (1995).
  • Chouinard G, Annable L, Tumier L etal A double-blind randomized clinical trial of rapid tranquilization with I.M. clonazepam and I.M. haloperidol in agitated psychotic patients with manic symptoms. Can. J. fiychiatry38 (Suppl. 4), S114—S121 (1993).
  • Sachs GS, Weilburg JB, Rosenbaum JE Clonazepam vs. neuroleptics as adjuncts to lithium maintenance. Rychopharmacol Bull. 26(1), 137–143 (1990).
  • Aronson TA, Shukla S, Hirschowitz J. Clonazepam treatment of five lithium-refractory patients with bipolar disorder. Ainj Psychiatry 146(1), 77–80 (1989).
  • Weiss SR, Post RM. Kindling: separate vs. shared mechanisms in affective disorders and epilepsy. Neuropsychobiology 38(3), 167–180 (1998).
  • Post RM, Ketter TA, Denicoff K et al The place of anticonvulsant therapy in bipolar illness. PTchophalmacology128(2), 115–129 (1996).
  • Keck PE, McElroy SL. Outcome in the pharmacologic treatment of bipolar disorder. .1. Clin. PTchophalmacol. 16(2 Suppl. 1), 15S-23S (1996).
  • Emrich HM. Studies with oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) in acute mania. Int. Clin. fiychopharmacol 5\(Suppl. 1), 83–88 (1990).
  • Muller AA, Stoll K-D. Carbamazepine and oxcarbamazepine in the treatment of manic syndromes: studies in Germany. In: Anticonvulsants in Affective Disorrlers: Emrich HM, Okuma T, Muller AA (Eds). Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 139–147 (1984).
  • Dietrich DE, Kropp S, Emrich HM. Oxcarbazepine in affective and schizoaffective disorders. Pharmacopsychiatry 34 (6), 242–250 (2001).
  • Hummel B, Walden J, Stampfer R etal Acute antimanic efficacy and safety of oxcarbazepine in an open trial with an on- off-on design. Bipolar Disord In press.
  • Alberto G, Erickson T, Popiel R etal Central nervous system manifestations of a valproic acid overdose responsive to naloxone. Ann. Emerg: Med. 18(8), 889–891 (1989).
  • Lloyd P, Flesch G, Dieterle W Clinical pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine. Epilepsia 35 (Suppl. 3), S10—S13 (1994).
  • Cloyd J. Pharmacokinetic pitfalls of present anti-epileptic medications. Epilepsia 32\(Suppl. 5), S53—S65 (1991).
  • Hesslinger B, Normann C, Langosch JM etal Effects of carbamazepine and valproate on haloperidol plasma levels and on psychopathologic outcome in schizophrenic patients. j Clin. fiychopharmacol 19(4), 310–315 (1999).
  • Okuma T, Kishimoto A, Inoue K et al Antimanic and prophylactic effects of carbamazepine (Tegretoln on manic depressive psychosis. A preliminary report. Folia PTchiatr: Neural fpn 27(4), 283–297 (1973).
  • Okuma T, Inanaga K, Otsuki S et al A preliminary double-blind study on the efficacy of carbamazepine in prophylaxis of manic-depressive illness. PTchopharmacology 3erl.)73(1), 95–96 (1981).
  • Hartong EGThM, Moleman P, Hoogduin CAL, Broekman TG, Nolen W Prophylactic efficacy of lithium versus carbamazepine in treatment-naive bipolar patients. j Clin. Psychiatry (In press).
  • Greil W, Kleindienst N, Erazo N etal Differential response to lithium and carbamazepine in the prophylaxis of bipolar disorder. .1. Clin. fiychopharmacol 18,455–460 (1998).
  • Denicoff KD, Smith-Jackson EE, Disney ER etal Comparative prophylactic efficacy of lithium, carbamazepine and the combination in bipolar disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry58(11), 470–478 (1997).
  • Maj M, Pirozzi R, Magliano L etal. Long-term outcome of lithium prophylaxis in bipolar disorder: a 5-year prospective study of 402 patients at a lithium clinic. Am. J. Psychiatry 155(1), 30–35 (1998).
  • Frankenburg FR, Tohen M, Cohen BM et al Long-term response to carbamazepine: a retrospective study. Clin. Psychopharmacol 8(2), 130–132 (1988).
  • Post RM. Prophylaxis of bipolar disorders. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 2,277–320 (1990).
  • Kruger S, Braunig P, Young LT Biological treatment of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry29(5), 167–175 (1996).
  • Okuma T Effects of carbamazepine and lithium on affective disorders. Neumpsychobiology27(3), 138–145 (1993).
  • Grunze H, Amann B, Walden J. How might anticonvulsant drugs work in bipolar affective disorder? In: Seizures, Affective disarlers ancl Anticonvulsant drugs. Trimble MR, Schmitz B (Eds). Clarius Press, Guildford, UK, 117–130 (2002).
  • Lambert PA, Venaud G. Utilisation de valpromide en therapeutique psychiatrique. Eencephale 8,367–373 (1966).
  • Emrich HM, von Zerssen D, Kissling W et al Effect of sodium valproate on mania. The GABA-hypothesis of affective disorders. Arch. Psychiatr: Nervenkr 229 (1), 1–16 (1980).
  • Pope HG, McElroy SL, Keck PE etal Valproate in the treatment of acute mania. A placebo-controlled study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48(1), 62–68 (1991).
  • Freeman TVV, Clothier JL, Pazzaglia P etal A double-blind comparison of valproate and lithium in the treatment of acute mania. Am Psychiatry149(1), 108–111 (1992).
  • Bowden CL, Brugger AM, Swann AC etal Efficacy of divalproex vs. lithium and
  • •• placebo in the treatment of mania. The Depakote Mania Study Group. JAIVIA 271(12), 918–924 (1994). Important investigation demonstrating efficacy of VPA in manic patients.
  • Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Retzow A, Henn F et al Valproate as an adjunct to neuroleptic medication for the treatment of acute episodes of mania. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study. j Clin. P9rhopharmacol 20,195–203 (2000).
  • McElroy SL, Keck PE. Treatment guidelines for valproate in bipolar and schizoaffective disorders. Can. j Psychiatry 38(3 Suppl. 2), S62—S66 (1993).
  • McElroy SL, Keck PE, Stanton SP etal A randomized comparison of divalproex oral loading versus haloperidol in the initial treatment of acute psychotic mania. j Clin. P9rhiatry57(4), 142–146 (1996).
  • Keck PE, McElroy SL, Tugrul KC etal Valproate oral loading in the treatment of acute mania.j Clin. Psychiatry 54(8), 305–308 (1993).
  • Bowden CL, Janicak PG, Orsulak P etal Relation of serum valproate concentration to response in mania. Am j Psychiatry 153(6), 765–770 (1996).
  • Grunze H, Erfurth A, Amann B eta]. Intravenous valproate loading in acutely manic and depressed bipolar I patients. J. Clin. P9rhophalmacol. 19(4), 303–309 (1999).
  • Schmidt D. Adverse effects of valproate. Epilepsia 25 (Suppl. 1), S44—S49 (1984).
  • Grunze H, Walden J. Valpmat bei manisch- depressiven (bipolaten) Erktankungen. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany (2000).
  • Sachs GS, Printz DJ, Kahn DA etal The Expert consensus guideline series: medication treatment of bipolar disorder 2000. Postgrad Med. Spec. Report 1–104 (2000).
  • Grunze H, Kasper S, Goodwin G etal The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (VVFSBP) Guidelines for the Biological Treatment of Bipolar Disorders. Part II: Treatment of Mania. World Biol. Psychiatry (In press).
  • Zarin D, Pincus HA, McIntyre JS. APA Practice Guideline For The Treatment Of Patients With Bipolar Disorder. www.psych.org/clin_res/pg_bipolancfm (2002).
  • Winsberg ME, DeGolia SG, Strong CM etal Divalproex therapy in medication-naive and mood-stabilizer-naive bipolar II depression. j Affect. Disord 67 (1-3), 207–212 (2001).
  • Solomon DA, Keitner GI, Ryan CE et al Lithium plus valproate as maintenance polypharmacy for patients with bipolar I disorder: a review. j Clin. P9rhopharmacol 18(1), 38–49 (1998).
  • Burks S, Kulkarni S. The safety and efficacy of divalproex in bipolar disorder: A retrospective analysis of maintenance treatment. Proc.APA Annual Meeting, NR 332. (1996).
  • Calabrese JR, Rapport DJ, Kimmel SE etal Rapid cycling bipolar disorder and its treatment with valproate. Can. j Psychiatry 38(3 Suppl. 2), S57—S61 (1993).
  • Dunner DL, Fieve RR. Clinical factors in lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure. Arch. Gen. fiychiatry 30(2), 229–233 (1974).
  • •Showed that lithium is less effective in patients with four or more affective episodes and therefore the term 'rapid cycling' was created.
  • Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, McElroy SL etal A randomized, placebo-controlled 12-month trial of divalproex and lithium in treatment of out-patients with bipolar I disorder. Divalproex Maintenance Study Group. Arch. Gen Psychiatry 57,481–489 (2000).
  • •Interesting investigation with the result that lithium as well as VPA is not superior to placebo in prophylactic treatment.
  • Grunze H, von Wegerer J, Greene RVV etal Modulation of calcium and potassium currents by lamotrigine. Neumpsychobiology 38(3), 131–138 (1998).
  • Walden J, Hesslinger B, van Calker D etal Addition of lamotrigine to valproate may enhance efficacy in the treatment of bipolar affective disorder. Phalmacopsychiatry 29(5), 193–195 (1996).
  • Calabrese JR, Fatemi SH, Woyshville MJ. Antidepressant effects of lamotrigine in rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Am j Psychiatry153(9), 1236 (1996).
  • Fogelson DL, Sternbach H. Lamotrigine treatment of refractory bipolar disorder. j Clin. fiychiatry58(6), 271–273 (1997).
  • Sporn J, Sachs G. The anticonvulsant lamotrigine in treatment-resistant manic-depressive illness. j Clin. P9rhopharmacol 17(3), 185–189 (1997).
  • Kusumakar V, Yatham LN. Lamotrigine treatment of rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Am Psychiatry154(8), 1171–1172 (1997).
  • Fatemi SH, Rapport DJ, Calabrese JR etal Lamotrigine in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. I Clin. PFhiatry 58 (12), 522–527 (1997).
  • Obrocea GV, Dunn RM, Frye MA etal Clinical predictors of response to lamotrigine and gabapentin monotherapy in refractory affective disorders. Biol. PFhiatry 51 (3), 253–260 (2002).
  • Calabrese JR, Suppes T, Bowden CL etal A double-blind, placebo-controlled, prophylaxis study of lamotrigine in rapid cycling bipolar disorder. j Clin. Psychiatry 61,841–850 (2000).
  • Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, DeVeaugh- Geiss J etal Lamotrigine demonstrates long-term mood stabilization in manic patients. APA Annual meeting abstracts 2001, NR 403. (2001).
  • Calabrese J, Bowden CL, Sachs G etal A Placebo-Controlled 18-Month Trial of Lamotrigine and Lithium Maintenance Treatment in Recently Depressed Patients with Bipolar I Disorder. JAIVIA In press (2002).
  • •Important study with positive results of LTG in the prophylactic treatment of bipolar patients.
  • Erfurth A, Walden J, Grunze H. Lamotrigine in the treatment of schizoaffective disorder. Neuropsychobiology 38(3), 204–205 (1998).
  • Walden J, Grunze H. New Anticonvulsants in Bipolar Disorder: Lamotrigine, Gabapentin, Tiagabine. In: Seizures, Affective disorclers. and Anticonvulsant drugs. Trimble MR, Schmitz B (Eds). Clarius Press, Guildford, UK, 131–142 (2002).
  • Pande AC, Crockatt JG, Janney CA etal Gabapentin in bipolar disorder: a placebo-controlled trial of adjunctive therapy. Gabapentin Bipolar Disorder Study Group. Bipolar Disord. 2(3), 249–255 (2000).
  • McElroy SL, Altshuler LL, Suppes T etal Axis I psychiatric comorbidity and its relationship to historical illness variables in 288 patients with bipolar disorder. Am. j Psychiatry 158(3), 420–426 (2001).
  • Meldrum BS. Update on the mechanism of action of anti-epileptic drugs. Epilepsia 37\(Suppl. 6), S4-11 (1996).
  • McElroy SL, Kmetz GE Keck PE. A pilot trial of adjunctive topiramate in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Abstr. XXIst CINP Congress, 281. (1998).
  • Normann C, Langosch J, Schaerer LO et al Treatment of acute mania with topiramate. Am. PTchiatry156(12), 2014 (1999).
  • Grunze HC, Normann C, Langosch J etal. Antimanic efficacy of topiramate in 11 patients in an open trial with an on-off-on design.j Clin. Psychiatry 62 (6), 464–468 (2001).
  • Marcotte D. Use of topiramate, a new anti- epileptic as a mood stabilizer. J. Affect. Disord 50,245–251 (1998).
  • McElroy SL, Suppes T, Keck PE eta]. Open-label adjunctive topiramate in the treatment of bipolar disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 47,1025–1033 (2000).
  • Rosenfeld WE, Schaefer PA, Pace K. Weight loss patterns with topiramate therapy. Epilepsia 38\(Suppl. 3), 58 (1997).
  • Marson AG, Kadir ZA, Hutton JL et al The new anti-epileptic drugs: a systematic review of their efficacy and tolerability. Epilepsia 38(8), 859–880 (1997).
  • Jones MW Topiramate — safety and tolerability. Can. J. Neural. Sci. 25(3), S13—S15 (1998).
  • Stephen LJ, Maxwell JE, Brodie MJ. Transient hemiparesis with topiramate. BE Med 318(7187), 845 (1999).
  • Schaffer LC, Schaffer CB. Tiagabine and the treatment of refractory bipolar disorder. Am Psychiatry156(12), 2014–2015 (1999).
  • Grunze H, Erfurth A, Marcuse A eta]. Tiagabine appears not to be efficacious in the treatment of acute mania. j Clin. Bychiatry60(11), 759–762 (1999).
  • Suppes T, Chisholm, K., Dhavale D et al Tiagabine in treatment refractory bipolar disorder: a clinical case series. Bipolar Disord an press).
  • Carta MG, Hardoy MC, Grunze H eta]. The use of tiagabine in affective disorders. Pharmacopsychiatry35(1), 33–34 (2002).
  • Hovinga CA. Levetiracetam: a novel anti- epileptic drug. Phalmacothempy21 (11), 1375–1388 (2001).
  • Noyer M, Gillard M, Matagne A eta]. The novel anti-epileptic drug levetiracetam (ucb L059) appears to act via a specific binding site in CNS membranes. Eur. j Pharmacol 286(2), 137–146 (1995).
  • Klitgaard H, Matagne A, Gobert J eta]. Evidence for a unique profile of levetiracetam in rodent models of seizures and epilepsy. Eur Pharmacol 353(2-3), 191–206 (1998).
  • Georg MD, Klitgaard H. Inhibition of neuronal hypersynchrony in vitm differentiates levetiracetam from classical anti-epileptic drugs. Pharmacol Res. 42(4), 281–285 (2000).
  • Hachad H, Ragueneau-Majlessi I, Levy RII. New anti-epileptic drugs: review ondrug interactions. Ther. Drug- Monit. 24(1), 91–103 (2002).
  • Betts T, Waegemans T, Crawford P. A multicentre, double-blind, randomized, parallel group study to evaluate the tolerability and efficacy of two oral doses of levetiracetam, 2000 mg daily and 4000 mg daily, without titration in patients with refractory epilepsy. Seizure 9(2), 80–87 (2000).
  • Goldberg JF, Burdick KE. Levetiracetam for acute mania. A117. Bychiatry159(1), 148 (2002).
  • Walden J, Langosch J, Born C eta]. Levetiracetam and ethosuximide in the treatment of acute mania in an open study with an on-off-on design. Bipolar Disord 4 (Suppl. 1), 114 (2002).
  • Kanba S, Yagi G, Kamijima K eta]. The first open study of zonisamide, a novel anticonvulsant, shows efficacy in mania. Frog. Neuropsychopharmacol Bid Psychiatry 18(4), 707–715 (1994).
  • Tober C, Rostock A, Rundfeldt C eta]. D-23129: a potent anticonvulsant in the amygdala kindling model of complex partial seizures. Eur j Pharmacol 303(3), 163–169 (1996).
  • Freeman MP, Stoll AL. Mood stabilizer combinations: a review of safety and efficacy. Am. Bychiatry 155(1), 12–21 (1998).
  • Shukla S, Godwin CD, Long LE eta]. Lithium—carbamazepine neurotoxicity and risk factors. A117. I Psychiatry141(12), 1604–1606 (1984).
  • Frye MA, Ketter TA, Leverich GS eta]. The increasing use of polypharmacotherapy for refractory mood disorders: 22 years of study.j Clin. PTchiatry 61 (1), 9–15 (2000).
  • •Interesting study showing the increasing use of combination therapy in affective disorders.
  • Grunze H, Dobmeier M. Modul Therapie akuter Episoden. In: Wissbuch Bipolare Störungen in Deutschland. Deutsche Gesellschaft far Bipolare Störungen e.V.(DGBS e.V.) (Ed.). CP-Verlag, Hamburg, Germany, 57–66 (2002).
  • Kupka RVV, Nolen WA, Altshuler LL eta]. The Stanley Foundation Bipolar Network: 2. Preliminary summary of demographics, course of illness and response to novel treatments. Br. Bychiatry178 (41), S177—S183 (2001).
  • Ketter TA, Calabrese JR. Stabilization of mood from below versus above baseline in bipolar disorder: a new nomenclature. Clin. Psychiatry63(2), 146–151 (2002).
  • Suppes T, Leverich GS, Keck PE eta]. The Stanley Foundation Bipolar Treatment Outcome Network. II. Demographics and illness characteristics of the first 261 patients . I Affect. Disord 67 (1–3), 45–59 (2001).
  • Dittmann S, Biedermann NC, Grunze H eta]. The Stanley Foundation Bipolar Network: Results of the naturalistic follow-up study (NFS) after 2 Vz years of follow-up in the German centres. Neuropsychobiology an press).
  • Stoll AL, Severus WE. Mood stabilizers: shared mechanisms of action at postsynaptic signal-transduction and kindling processes. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 4(2), 77–89 (1996).
  • Yuan PX, Huang LD, Jiang YM eta]. The mood stabilizer valproic acid activates mitogen-activated protein kinases and promotes neurite growth. J. Bid Chem. 276(34), 31674–31683 (2001).
  • Chen G, Huang LD, Zeng WZ eta]. Mood stabilizers regulate cytoprotective and mRNA-binding proteins in the brain: long-term effects on cell survival and transcript stability. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol 4 (1), 47–64 (2001).
  • Manji HK, Moore GJ, Chen G. Bipolar disorder: leads from the molecular and cellular mechanisms of action of mood stabilisers. BE J. PFchiatry178 (Suppl. 41), S107—S119 (2001).
  • Soares JC, Chen G, Dippold CS eta]. Concurrent measures of protein kinase C and phosphoinositides in lithium-treated bipolar patients and healthy individuals: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res. 95(2), 109–118 (2000).
  • Bebchuk JM, Arfken CL, Dolan MS et al A preliminary investigation of a protein kinase C inhibitor in the treatment of acute mania. Airh. Gen. Psychiatry57 (1), 95–97 (2000).
  • Chen G, Masana MI, Manji HK. Lithium regulates PKC-mediated intracellular cross-talk and gene expression in the CNS in vivo. Bipolar Disord 2(3), 217–236 (2000).
  • Manji HK, Lenox RII. The nature of bipolar disorder. J. Gun. Psychiatry 61 (Suppl. 13), 42–57 (2000).
  • Manji HK, Moore GJ, Chen G. Clinical and preclinical evidence for the neurotrophic effects of mood stabilizers: implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of manic-depressive illness. Biol. PTchiatry48(8), 740–754 (2000).
  • Manji HK, Moore GJ, Rajkowska G eta]. Neuroplasticity and cellular resilience in mood disorders. Mal Psychiatiy5 (6), 578–593 (2000).
  • Williams RS, Cheng L, Mudge AW etal. A common mechanism of action for three mood-stabilizing drugs. Nature 417(6886), 292–295 (2002).
  • Grunze H. The search for the Holy Grail — the ideal mood stabilizer: fiction or future? In: WPA Series Evidence Experience in fiychiatry' — Bipolar disoider. Maj M, Akiskal H, Lopez-Ibor JJ etal (Eds) Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 229–232 (2002).
  • Pande AC, Pollack MH, Crockatt J eta]. Placebo-controlled study of gabapentin treatment of panic disorder. J. Gun. Psychopharmacol 20(4), 467–471 (2000).
  • Hamner MB, Brodrick PS, Labbate LA. Gabapentin in PTSD: a retrospective, clinical series of adjunctive therapy. Ann. Gun. Bychiatry13(3), 141–146 (2001).
  • Crane DL. APA book of abstracts 2002, report sessions No. 120, page 48.
  • Lara ME. APA book of abstracts 2002, report sessions No. 121, page 49.
  • Ghaemi SN, Sachs GS, Chiou AM etal Is bipolar disorder still underdiagnosed? Are antidepressants overutilized. J. Affect. Disonl. 52(1–3), 135–144 (1999).
  • Solomon DA, Ryan CE, Keitner GI eta]. A pilot study of lithium carbonate plus divalproex sodium for the continuation and maintenance treatment of patients with bipolar I../ Gun. Psychiatry 58(3), 95–99 (1997). Affiliations

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.