References
- Rabinowitz T Delirium: an important (but often unrecognized) clinical syndrome. Curl: Psychiatry Rep. 4,202–208 (2002).
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Text Revision, (4th Edition). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, USA (2000).
- •Contains the most up-to-date definition of delirium as well as other clinical disorders that must be considered when entertaining a diagnosis of delirium.
- Camus V, Burtin B, Simeone I, Schwed P, Gonthier R, Dubos G. Factor analysis supports the evidence of existing hyperactive and hypoactive subtypes of delirium. Int.j Geriat. PTchiatry15, 313–316 (2000).
- Liptzin B, Levkoff SE, Cleary PD etal An empirical study of diagnostic criteria for delirium. Ainj Psychiatry 148, 454–457 (1991).
- Meagher DJ, OHanlon D, OMahony E, Casey PR, Trzepacz PT Relationship between symptoms and motoric subtype of delirium. J. Neuropsychiatry Gun. Neurosci. 12,51–56 (2000).
- Sandberg O, Gustafson Y, Brannstrom B, Bucht G. Clinical profile of delirium in older patients. jAm. Geriat. Soc. 47, 1300–1306 (1999).
- O'Keeffe ST, Lavan JN. Clinical significance of delirium subtypes in older people. Age Ageing-28, 115–119 (1999).
- Kelly KG, Zisselman M, Cutillo-Schmitter T Reichard R, Payne D, Denman SJ. Severity and course of delirium in medically hospitalized nursing facility residents. Am. Geriat. Psychiatry9, 72–77 (2001).
- Kobayashi K, Takeuchi O, Suzuki M, Yamaguchi N. A retrospective study on delirium type. Jpn. j Bychiatry Neural. 46, 911–917 (1992).
- Rahkonen T, Makela H, Paanila S, Halonen P, Sivenius J, Sulkava R. Delirium in elderly people without severe predisposing disorders: etiology and 1-year prognosis after discharge. int. PTchogeriatr 12,473–481 (2000).
- George J, Bleasdale S, Singleton SJ. Causes and prognosis of delirium in elderly patients admitted to a district general hospital. Age Ageing26, 423–427 (1997).
- Folstein ME, Bassett SS, Romanoski AJ, Nestadt G. The epidemiology of delirium in the community: the Eastern Baltimore Mental Health Survey. Int. Psychogeriatn 3, 169–176 (1991).
- Tauscher J, Tauscher-Wisniewski S, Kasper S. Treatment of patients with delirium. AT/7. fisychiatry 157,1711 (2000).
- Gallinat J, Moller H, Moser RL, Heger]. U. Postoperative delirium: risk factors, prophylaxis and treatment. Anaesthesist. 48, 507–518 (1999).
- Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with delirium. Am J. Bychiatry 156,1–20 (1999).
- •Key reference for the standard of care for patients with delirium.
- Slavney PR. Delirium. In: Psychiatric Dimensions of Medical Practice: What Primary Care Physicians Should Know About Delirium, Demoralization, Suicidal Thinking and Competence to Refuse Medical Advice. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, USA, 9–62 (1998).
- Frederiks JA. Inflammation of the mind. On the 300th anniversary of Gerard van Swieten. j I--listory Neurosci. 9,307-310 (2000).
- Lipowski ZJ. Delirium: how its concept has developed. Int. PTchogeriatn 3,115–120 (1991).
- Ross CA. CNS arousal systems: possible role in delirium. int. Rychogerian: 3,353–371 (1991).
- Ross CA, Peyser CE, Shapiro I, Folstein ME. Delirium: phenomenologic and etiologic subtypes. Int. PTchogeriatn 3, 135–147 (1991).
- Gray SL, Lai KV, Larson EB. Drug- induced cognition disorders in the elderly: incidence, prevention and management. Drug Sal 21,101–122 (1999).
- ••Well-written and comprehensivetreatment of an important subject given that drugs play such an important role in the etiology of delirium.
- Brauer C, Morrison RS, Silberzweig SB, Siu AL. The cause of delirium in patients with hip fracture. Awl?. Intern Med. 160, 1856–1860 (2000).
- Adinoff B. Delirium following cessation of alcohol consumption. Am J. Bychiatry 155,1638; discussion 1638–1639 (1998).
- Diehl JL, Guillibert E, Guerot E, Kimounn E, Labrousse J. Acute benzodiazepine withdrawal delirium after a short course of flunitrazepam in an intensive care patient. Ann Med. Interne (Park). 151, A44—A46 (2000).
- Gallagher R. Nicotine withdrawal as an etiologic factor in delirium. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 16,76–77 (1998).
- Breitbart W, Cohen K. Delirium in the Terminally In. In: Handbook of Psychiatry in Palliative Care Medicine. Chochinov HM, Breitbart W (Eds). Oxford University Press, New York, USA, 75–90 (2000).
- •Important because it supports the notion that, even though this form of delirium may have irreversible cause(s), symptomatic treatment is possible and should be aggressively pursued.
- van der Mast RC. Pathophysiology of delirium. J. Geriat. Psychiatry Neural 11, 138–145, discussion 157–138 (1998).
- ••Excellent paper that makes compellingarguments for key factors involved in the pathophysiology of the disorder.
- van der Mast RC, Fekkes D. Serotonin and amino acids: partners in delirium pathophysiology? Semin. Clin. Neuropsychiatry5, 125–131 (2000).
- ••Excellent paper that make compellingarguments for key factors involved in the pathophysiology of the disorder.
- Flacker JM, Wei JY. Endogenous anticholinergic substances may exist during acute illness in elderly medical patients. Gerontal A. Biol. Sci. Med Sci. 56, M353—M355 (2001).
- Flacker JM, Lipsitz LA. Large neutral amino acid changes and delirium in febrile elderly medical patients. I Gerontal A. Biol. Sci. Med Sci. 55, B249—B252; discussion B253—B244 (2000).
- Flacker JM, Lipsitz LA. Neural mechanisms of delirium: current hypotheses and evolving concepts. I Gerontal A. Biol. Sci. Med Sci. 54, B239—B246 (1999).
- •Good review of the current theories about the pathophysiology of delirium.
- Flacker JM, Cummings V, Mach JR Jr., Bettin K, Kiely DK, Wei J. The association of serum anticholinergic activity with delirium in elderly medical patients. Am. Geriat. PTchiatry6, 31–41 (1998).
- Burns MJ, Linden CH, Graudins A, Brown RM, Fletcher KE. A comparison of physostigmine and benzodiazepines for the treatment of anticholinergic poisoning. Ann Emerg. Med 35,374–381 (2000).
- Beaver KM, Gavin TJ. Treatment of acute anticholinergic poisoning with physostigmine. Am. I Emerg. Med. 16, 505–507 (1998).
- van der Mast RC, van den Broek WW, Fekkes D, Pepplinkhuizen L, Roest FH. Delirium after cardiac surgery. The possible role of tryptophan in relation to the other neutral aminoacids. Adv. Exp. Med Biol. 398,93–96 (1996).
- van der Mast RC, van den Broek WW, Fekkes D, Pepplinkhuizen L, Habbema JD. Incidence of and preoperative predictors for delirium after cardiac surgery. I Psychosom. Res. 46,479–483 (1999).
- Sanchez-Pernaute R, Brownell AL, Isacson O. Functional imaging of the dopamine system: in vivo evaluation of dopamine deficiency and restoration. Neurotoxicology 23,469–478 (2002).
- Agid Y, Arnulf I, Bejjani P et al Parkinson's disease is a neuropsychiatric disorder. Adv. Neural 91,365–370 (2003).
- Mash DC, Pablo J, Ouyang Q, Hearn WL, Izenwasser S. Dopamine transport function is elevated in cocaine users. I Neurochem. 81,292–300 (2002).
- Kuzuhara S. Drug-induced psychotic symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Problems, management and dilemma. I Neural 248, 11128–31 (2001).
- Young BK, Camicioli R, Ganzini L. Neuropsychiatric adverse effects of antiparkinsonian drugs. Characteristics, evaluation and treatment. Thugs Aging10, 367–383 (1997).
- Wolters EC, Berendse HW. Management of psychosis in Parkinson's disease. CU17: Opin. Neural 14,499–504 (2001).
- Tauscher J, Tauscher-Wisniewski S, Kasper S. Treatment of patients with delirium. Am. PTchiatry157, 1711 (2000).
- Bostwick JM, Masterson BJ. Psychopharmacological treatment of delirium to restore mental capacity. PTchosomatics 39,112–117 (1998).
- Croissant B, Mann K. Alcohol withdrawal syndrome and its treatment. Ther. Umsch. 57,257–260 (2000).
- Peppers MP. Benzodiazepines for alcohol withdrawal in the elderly and in patients with liver disease. Pharmacotherapy 16,49–57 (1996).
- Muller N, Riedel M, Ackenheil M, Schwarz MJ. The role of immune function in schizophrenia: an overview. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 249,62–68 (1999).
- Hopkins SJ, Rothwell NJ. Cytokines and the nervous system. I: expression and recognition. Wends Neurosci. 18,83–88 (1995).
- Stefano GB, Bilfinger TV, Fricchione GL. The immuno—eneuro-link and the macrophage: postcardiotomy delirium, HIV-associated dementia and psychiatry. Prog. Neurobial 42,475–488 (1994).
- Cudent Practice of Clinical Electmencephalography (3rd Edition). Ebersole JS, Pedley TA (Eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, USA (2002).
- Electmencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications and Related Fields, (4th Edition). Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Silva F (Eds). Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, USA (1999).
- Holschneider DP, Leuchter AF Clinical neurophysiology using electroencephalography in geriatric psychiatry: neurobiologic implications and clinical utility. I Geriat. Psychiatry Neural 12,150–164 (1999).
- Holschneider DP, Leuchter AF Clinical neurophysiology using electroencephalography in geriatric psychiatry: neurobiologic implications and clinical utility. I Geriat. Psychiatry Neural 12,150–164 (1999).
- Maletta GJ. The concept of reversible dementia. How nonreliable terminology may impair effective treatment. I Am. Geriat. Soc. 38,136–140 (1990).
- Olympio MA. Postanesthetic delirium: historical perspectives. I Clin. Anesth. 3, 60–63 (1991).
- Francis J. Delirium in older patients. I Am. Geriat. Soc. 40,829–838 (1992).
- Francis J. Delusions, delirium and cognitive impairment: the challenge of clinical heterogeneity. I Am. Geriat. Soc. 40,848–849 (1992).
- Marcantonio ER, Simon SE, Bergmann MA, Jones RN, Murphy KM, Morris JN. Delirium symptoms in post-acute care: prevalent, persistent and associated with poor functional recovery. I Am. Geriat. Soc. (In Press).
- Kiely DK, Bergmann MA, Murphy KM, Jones RN, Orav EJ, Marcantonio ER. Delirium among newly admitted postacute facility patients: prevalence, symptoms and severity. I Gerontal Med. ScL (In Press).
- Levkoff SE, Evans DA, Liptzin B et al Delirium. The occurrence and persistence of symptoms among elderly hospitalized patients. Anh. Intern. Med. 152,334–340 (1992).
- Gustafson Y, Berggren D, Brannstrom B eta]. Acute confusional states in elderly patients treated for femoral neck fracture. J. Am. Geriat. Soc. 36,525–530 (1988).
- Rockwood K. The occurrence and duration of symptoms in elderly patients with delirium. J. Gerontol 48, M162—M166 (1993).
- Williams-Russo P, Urquhart BL, Sharrock NE, Charlson ME. Postoperative delirium: predictors and prognosis in elderly orthopedic patients. J. Am. Geriat. Soc. 40, 759–767 (1992).
- Inouye SK, Viscoli CM, Horwitz RI, Hurst LD, Tinetti ME. A predictive model for delirium in hospitalized elderly medical patients based on admission characteristics. Ann. Intern Med. 119,474–481 (1993).
- Francis J, Martin D, Kapoor WN. A prospective study of delirium in hospitalized elderly. JAIVIA 263,1097–1101 (1990).
- Gustafson Y, Brannstrom B, Norberg A, Bucht G, Winblad B. Underdiagnosis and poor documentation of acute confusional states in elderly hip fracture patients. J. Am. Geriat. Soc. 39,760–765 (1991).
- Rockwood K, Cosway S, Stolee P eta]. Increasing the recognition of delirium in elderly patients. jAm. Geriat. Soc. 42, 252–256 (1994).
- Inouye SK, Foreman MD, Mion LC, Katz KH, Cooney LM Jr. Nurses' recognition of delirium and its symptoms: comparison of nurse and researcher ratings. Arch. Intern. Med. 161,2467-2473 (2001).
- Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA, Balkin S, Siegal AP, Horwitz RI. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern. Med. 113,941–948 (1990).
- ••Describes one of the first clinically usefulassessment instruments for delirium by an improtant delirium researcher, Dr Inouye.
- Trzepacz PT, Baker RW, Greenhouse J. A symptom rating scale for delirium. Psychiatry Res. 23,89–97 (1988).
- ••Commonly used, easily administered scalefor rating symptom magnitude in deliriu, produced by Dr Trzepacz.
- Breitbart W, Rosenfeld B, Roth A, Smith MJ, Cohen K, Passik S. The Memorial Delirium Assessment Scale. J. Pain Symptom Manage. 13,128–137 (1997).
- Morris JN, Hawes C, Fries BE eta]. Designing the national resident assessment instrument for nursing homes. Gerontologist 30,293–307 (1990).
- Morris JN, Nonemaker S, Murphy K etal A commitment to change: revision of HCFAs RAI. Am. Geriat. Soc. 45,1011–1016 (1997).
- Morris JN, Fries BE, Mehr DR et al. MDS Cognitive Performance Scale. J. Gerontol. 49, M174–182 (1994).
- Hirdes JP, Frijters DH, Teare GE The MDS-CHESS scale: a new measure to predict mortality in institutionalized older people. A/17. Geriat. Soc. 51 (2003).
- Levenson JL. High-dose iv. haloperidol for agitated delirium following lung transplantation. PTchosomatics 36,66–68 (1995).
- Metzger E, Friedman R. Prolongation of the corrected QT and torsades de pointes cardiac arrhythmia associated with iv. haloperidol in the medically ill. j Clin. fiychopharmacol 13,128–132 (1993).
- Hunt N, Stem TA. The association between iv. haloperidol and Torsades de Pointes. Three cases and a literature review. fiychosomatics 36,541–549 (1995).
- Lawrence KR, Nasraway SA. Conduction disturbances associated with administration of butyrophenone antipsychotics in the critically ill: a review of the literature. Pharmacotherap. 17,531–537 (1997).
- Tune L. The role of antipsychotics in treating delirium. Corr Psychiatry Rep. 4, 209–212 (2002).
- Sipahimalani A, Masand PS. Use of risperidone in delirium: case reports. Ann Clin. PTchiatry 9,105–107 (1997).
- Sipahimalani A, Masand PS. Olanzapine in the treatment of delirium. Psychosomatics 39,422–430 (1998).
- Lerner DM, Schuetz L, Holland S, Rubinow DR, Rosenstein DL. Low-dose risperidone for the irritable medically ill patient. PTchosomatics 41,69–71 (2000).
- Kim KS, Pae CU, Chae JH, Bahk WM, Jun T An open pilot trial of olanzapine for delirium in the Korean population. fiychiatry Clin. Neurosci 55,515–519 (2001).
- Torres R, Mittal D, Kennedy R. Use of quetiapine in delirium: case reports. Psychosomatics 42,347–349 (2001).
- Breitbart W Tremblay A, Gibson C. An open trial of olanzapine for the treatment of delirium in hospitalized cancer patients. Psychosomatics 43,175–182 (2002).
- Leso L, Schwartz TL. Ziprasidone treatment of delirium. Psychosomatics 43, 61–62 (2002).
- Sadock BJ, Sadock VA. Pocket Handbook of Psychiatic Drug Treatment (3rd Ed.) Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, USA (2001).
- Battaglia J, Moss S, Rush J eta]. Haloperidol, lorazepam, or both for psychotic agitation? A multicenter, prospective, double-blind, emergency department study. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 15, 335–340 (1997).
- Wengel SP, Burke WJ, Roccaforte WH. Donepezil for postoperative delirium associated with Alzheimer's disease. J. Am. Geriat. Soc. 47,379–380 (1999).
- •Explores important ways to treat a form of delirium that may be due to a decrease in cholinergic neuron activity (as is seen in Alzheimer's disease) with a drug that retards the degradation of acetylcholine.
- Wengel SP, Roccaforte WH, Burke WJ. Donepezil improves symptoms of delirium in dementia: implications for future research. J. Geriat. Psychiatry Neum1.11, 159–161 (1998).
- •Explores important ways to treat a form of delirium that may be due to a decrease in cholinergic neuron activity (as is seen in Alzheimer's disease) with a drug that retards the degradation of acetylcholine.
- Fischer P. Successful treatment of nonanticholinergic delirium with a cholinesterase inhibitor. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol 21,118 (2001).
- •Explores important ways to treat a form of delirium that may be due to a decrease in cholinergic neuron activity (as is seen in Alzheimer's disease) with a drug that retards the degradation of acetylcholine.
- Inouye SK, Bogardus ST, Jr., Charpentier PA eta]. A multicomponent intervention to prevent delirium in hospitalized older patients. N Eng. J. Med. 340,669–676 (1999).
- ••Excellent report strongly supports thenotion that primary prevention of delirium is not only possible, it is a far superior option to containment of the disorder once it has developed.
- Inouye SK. Prevention of delirium in hospitalized older patients: risk factors and targeted intervention strategies. Ann. Med. 32,257–263 (2000).
- Carter GL, Dawson AH, Lopert R. Drug- induced delirium. Incidence, management and prevention. Drub Sal 15,291–301 (1996).
- Patten SB, Williams JV, Petcu R, Oldfield R. Delirium in psychiatric in-patients: a case-control study. Can. j Psychiatry 46, 162–166 (2001).
- Palmstierna T A model for predicting alcohol withdrawal delirium. P.TchiatE Serv. 52,820–823 (2001).
- Milisen K, Foreman MD, Abraham IL et al A nurse-led interdisciplinary intervention program for delirium in elderly hip-fracture patients. j Am. Cedar. Soc. 49,523–532 (2001).
- Marcantonio ER, Flacker JM, Wright RJ, Resnick NM. Reducing delirium after hip fracture: a randomized trial. j. Am. Cedar. Sac 49,516–522 (2001).