Idiopathic generalized epilepsies: clinical and electroencephalogram diagnosis and treatment

References

• Anonymous. Randomized clinical trial on the efficacy of anti-epileptic drugs in reducing the risk of relapse after a first unprovoked tonic- clonic seizure. First Seizure Trial Group (FIR.S.T. Group). Neurology 43(3 Pt 1), 478–483 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King MA, Newton MR, Jackson GD, Berkovic SF. Epileptology of the first-seizure presentation: a clinical, electroencephalographic, and magnetic imaging study of 300 consecutive patients. Lancet 352, 1007–1011 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirtz D, Ashwal S, Berg A et al. Practice parameter: evaluating a first nonfebrile seizure in children: report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, The Child Neurology Society, and The American Epilepsy Society. Neurology 55(5), 616–623 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 30, 389–399 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia 22(4), 489–501 (1981).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbs FA, Davis H, Lennox WG. The electroencephalogram in epilepsy and in conditions of impaired consciousness. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 34, 1133–1148 (1935).
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs FA, Gibbs EL, Lennox WG. Epilepsy: a paroxysmal cortical dysrhythmia. Brain 60, 377–388 (1937).
   Google Scholar
• Penfield W, Jasper HH. Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, MA, USA (1954).
   Google Scholar
• Gloor P. Generalized cortico-reticular epilepsies. Some considerations on the pathophysiology of generalized bilaterally synchronous spike and wave discharge. Epilepsia 9(3), 249–263 (1968).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauvel P, Kliemann F, Vignal JP, Chodkiewicz JP, Talairach J, Bancaud J. The clinical signs and symptoms of frontal lobe seizures. Phenomenology and classification. Adv. Neurol. 66, 115–125 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marcus EM, Watson CW, Simon SA. An experimental model of some varieties of petit mal epilepsy. Electrical–behavioral correlations of acute bilateral epileptogenic foci in cerebral cortex. Epilepsia 9(3), 233–248 (1968).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avoli M, Kostopoulos G. Participation of corticothalamic cells in penicillin-induced generalized spike and wave discharges. Brain Res. 247(1), 159–163 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliberti V, Grunewald RA, Panayiotopoulos CP, Chroni E. Focal electroencephalographic abnormalities in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 35(2), 297–301 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombroso CT. Consistent EEG focalities detected in subjects with primary generalized epilepsies monitored for two decades. Epilepsia 38(7), 797–812 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lancman ME, Asconape JJ, Golimstok A. Circling seizures in a case of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 35(2), 317–318 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lancman ME, Asconape JJ, Penry JK. Clinical and EEG asymmetries in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 35(2), 302–306 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguglia U, Gambardella A, Le Piane E et al. Idiopathic generalized epilepsies with versive or circling seizures. Acta Neurol. Scand. 99(4), 219–224 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiley MA, Smith SJ, Sander JW. Idiopathic generalized epilepsy presenting with hemiconvulsive seizures. Epilepsia 41(12), 1633–1636 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• So EL, King DW, Murvin AJ. Misdiagnosis of complex absence seizures. Arch. Neurol. 41(6), 640–641 (1984).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Engel J Jr. A proposed diagnostic scheme for people with epileptic seizures and with epilepsy, Report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 42, 796–803 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delgado-Escueta AV, Greenberg D, Weissbecker K et al. Gene mapping in the idiopathic generalized epilepsies: juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, childhood absence epilepsy, epilepsy with grand mal seizures, and early childhood myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 31(Suppl. 3), S19–S29 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Penry JK, Porter RJ, Dreifuss RE. Simultaneous recording of absence seizures with video tape and electroencephalography. A study of 374 seizures in 48 patients. Brain 98(3), 427–440 (1975).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefan H, Burr W, Hinderbrand D, Penin H. Basic temporal structure of absence symptoms. In: Advances in Epileptology: The 13th Epilepsy International Symposium. Kazamatsuri H, Seino M, Ward AA (Eds). Raven Press, NY, USA, 55–60 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Obeid T, Waheed G. Differentiation of typical absence seizures in epileptic syndromes. A video EEG study of 224 seizures in 20 patients. Brain 112(Pt. 4), 1039–1056 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agathonikou A, Panayiotopoulos CP, Giannakodimos S, Koutroumanidis M. Typical absence status in adults: diagnostic and syndromic considerations. Epilepsia 39(12), 1265–1276 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koutroumanidis M. Absence status. Epilepsy Disorders (2005) (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• Walker M, Cross H, Smith S et al. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus: Epilepsy Research Foundation Workshop Reports. Epileptic Disord. 7(3), 253–296 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Chroni E, Daskalopoulos C, Baker A, Rowlinson S, Walsh P. Typical absence seizures in adults: clinical, EEG, video-EEG findings and diagnostic/syndromic considerations. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 55(11), 1002–1008 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Koutroumanidis M, Giannakodimos S, Agathonikou A. Idiopathic generalised epilepsy in adults manifested by phantom absences, generalised tonic-clonic seizures, and frequent absence status. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 63(5), 622–627 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michelucci R, Rubboli G, Passarelli D et al. Electroclinical features of idiopathic generalised epilepsy with persisting absences in adult life. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 61(5), 471–477 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marini C, King MA, Archer JS, Newton MR, Berkovic SF. Idiopathic generalised epilepsy of adult onset: clinical syndromes and genetics. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 74(2), 192–196 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP. Idiopathic generalised epilepsies. In: The Epilepsies: Seizures, Syndromes and Management. Panayiotopoulos CP (Ed.). Bladon Medical Publishing, Oxford, UK, 271–348 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• North KN, Ouvrier RA, Nugent M. Pseudoseizures caused by hyperventilation resembling absence epilepsy. J. Child Neurol. 5(4), 288–294 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tukel K, Jasper H. The electroencephalogram in parasagittal lesions. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 4(Suppl. 4), 481–494 (1952).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blume WT, Pillay N. Electrographic and clinical correlates of secondary bilateral synchrony. Epilepsia 26(6), 636–641 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bancaud J, Talairach J. Clinical semiology of frontal lobe seizures. Adv. Neurol. 57, 3–58 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raymond AA, Fish DR, Sisodiya SM, Alsanjari N, Stevens JM, Shorvon SD. Abnormalities of gyration, heterotopias, tuberous sclerosis, focal cortical dysplasia, microdysgenesis, dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour and dysgenesis of the archicortex in epilepsy. Clinical,EEG and neuroimaging features in 100 adult patients. Brain 118, 629–660 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li LM, Donoghue MF, Smith SJM. Outcome of epilepsy surgery in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy associated with 3–4Hz generalised spike and wave discharges. J. Epilepsy 9, 210–214 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Koutroumanidis M, Hennessy MJ, Elwes RD, Binnie CD, Polkey CE. Coexistence of temporal lobe and idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Neurology 53(3), 490–495 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolson A, Chadwick DW, Smith DF. The coexistence of idiopathic generalized epilepsy and partial epilepsy. Epilepsia 45(6), 682–685 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luders H, Acharya J, Baumgartner C et al. Semiological seizure classification. Epilepsia 39(9), 1006–1013 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agathonikou A, Giannakodimos S, Ahmed Sharoqi I, Koutroumanidis M, Sanders S, Panayiotopoulos CP. Typical absences in adults: a clinico-EEG study of 93 patients. Epilepsia 38(Suppl. 3), 225 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Fountain NB, Kim JS, Lee SI. Sleep deprivation activates epileptiform discharges independent of the activating effects of sleep. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 15(1), 69–75 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halasz P, Filakovszky J, Vargha A, Bagdy G. Effect of sleep deprivation on spike–wave discharges in idiopathic generalised epilepsy: a 4 x 24 h continuous long-term EEG monitoring study. Epilepsy Res. 51(1–2), 123–132 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SI, Kirby D. Absence seizure with generalized rhythmic delta activity. Epilepsia 29(3), 262–267 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein MA, Duchowny M, Jayakar P. Altered responsivenessduring hyperventilation-induced EEG slowing: a non-epileptic phenomenon in normal children. Epilepsia 35, 1204–1207 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel GL, Ferris EB, Logan M. Hyperventilation: analysis of clinical symptomatology. Ann. Intern. Med. 27, 683–704 (1947).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum LM, Connolly MB, Farrell K, Wong PK. Hyperventilation-induced high-amplitude rhythmic slowing with altered consciousness: a video-EEG comparison with absence seizures. Epilepsia 43(11), 1372–1378 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andermann F, Keene DL, Andermann E, Quesney LF. Startle disease or hyperekplexia: further delineation of the syndrome. Brain 103(4), 985–997 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gastaut H, Broughton R. A clinical and polygraphic study of episodic phenomena during sleep. Recent Adv. Biol. Psychiatry 7, 197–221 (1965).
   Google Scholar
• Broughton R, Tolentino MA, Krelina M. Excessive fragmentary myoclonus in NREM sleep: a report of 38 cases. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 61(2), 123–133 (1985).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koutroumanidis M, Hennessy MJ, Chandler C. Postoperative myoclonus simulating seizure recurrence: a rare complication of anterior temporal lobectomy. Br. J. Neurosurg. 15(2), 174–177 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombroso CT, Fejerman N. Benign myoclonus of early infancy. Ann. Neurol. 1(2), 138–143 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrell K. Classifying epileptic syndromes: problems and a neurobiologic solution. Neurology 43(11 Suppl. 5), S8–S11 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covanis A, Skiadas K, Loli N, Lada C, Theodorou V. Absence epilepsy: early prognostic signs. Seizure 1(4), 281–289 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wirrell E, Camfield C, Camfield P, Dooley J. Prognostic significance of failure of the initial anti-epileptic drug in children with absence epilepsy. Epilepsia 42(6), 760–763 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covanis A, Skiadas K, Loli N, Lada C, Theodorou V. Absence epilepsy: early prognostic signs. Seizure 1(4), 281–289 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koutroumanidis M, Smith SJ. Use and abuse of EEG in the diagnosis of idiopathic generalised epilepsies. Epilepsia (2005) (In Press).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jeavons PM, Clark JE, Maheshwari MC. Treatment of generalized epilepsies of childhood and adolescence with sodium valproate (‘epilim’). Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 19(1), 9–25 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villarreal HJ, Wilder BJ, Willmore LJ et al. Effect of valproic acid on spike and wave discharges in patients with absence seizures. Neurology 28(9 Pt. 1), 886–891 (1978).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covanis A, Gupta AK, Jeavons PM. Sodium valproate: monotherapy and polytherapy. Epilepsia 23(6), 693–720 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berkovic SF, Andermann F, Guberman A, Hipola D, Bladin PF. Valproate prevents the recurrence of absence status. Neurology 39(10), 1294–1297 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verrotti A, Greco R, Chiarelli F, Domizio S, Sabatino G, Morgese G. Epilepsy with myoclonic absences with early onset: a follow-up study. J. Child Neurol. 14(11), 746–749 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richens A. Ethosuximide and valproate. In: Typical Absences and Related Epileptic Syndromes. Duncan JS, Panayiotopoulos CP (Eds). Churchill Comunications Europe, London, UK, 361–367 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Callaghan N, O’Hare J, O’Driscoll D, O’Neill B, Daly M. Comparative study of ethosuximide and sodium valproate in the treatment of typical absence seizures (petit mal). Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 24(6), 830–836 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato S, White BG, Penry JK et al. Valproic acid versus ethosuximide in the treatment of absence seizures. Neurology 32(2), 157–163 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buoni S, Grosso S, Fois A. Lamotrigine in typical absence epilepsy. Brain Dev. 21(5), 303–306 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank LM, Enlow T, Holmes GL et al. Lamictal (lamotrigine) monotherapy for typical absence seizures in children. Epilepsia 40(7), 973–979 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gericke CA, Picard F, Saint-Martin A, Strumia S, Marescaux C, Hirsch E. Efficacy of lamotrigine in idiopathic generalized epilepsy syndromes: a video-EEG-controlled, open study. Epileptic Disord. 1(3), 159–165 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barron TF, Hunt SL, Hoban TF, Price ML. Lamotrigine monotherapy in children. Pediatr. Neurol. 23(2), 160–163 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culy CR, Goa KL. Lamotrigine. A review of its use in childhood epilepsy. Paediatr. Drugs 2(4), 299–330 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Biraben A, Allain H, Scarabin JM, Schuck S, Edan G. Exacerbation of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy with lamotrigine. Neurology 55(11), 1758 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laegreid L, Kyllerman M, Hedner T, Hagberg B, Viggedahl G. Benzodiazepine amplification of valproate teratogenic effects in children of mothers with absence epilepsy. Neuropediatrics 24(2), 88–92 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrie CD, Robinson RO, Knott C, Panayiotopoulos CP. Lamotrigine as an add-on drug in typical absence seizures. Acta Neurol. Scand. 91(3), 200–202 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Ferrie CD, Knott C, Robinson RO. Interaction of lamotrigine with sodium valproate [letter]. Lancet 341(8842), 445 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beran RG, Berkovic SF, Dunagan FM et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of lamotrigine in treatment-resistant generalised epilepsy. Epilepsia 39(12), 1329–1333 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manonmani V, Wallace SJ. Epilepsy with myoclonic absences. Arch. Dis. Child. 70(4), 288–290 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowan AJ, Meijer JW, de Beer-Pawlikowski N, van der Geest P, Meinardi, H. Valproate-ethosuximide combination therapy for refractory absence seizures. Arch. Neurol. 40(13), 797–802 (1983).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tassinari CA, Michelucci R, Rubboli G et al. Myoclonic absence epilepsy. In: Typical Absences and Related Epileptic Syndromes. Duncan JS, Panayiotopoulos CP (Eds). Churchill Communications Europe, London, UK, 187–195 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Mattson RH, Cramer JA. Valproic acid and ethosuximide interaction. Ann. Neurol. 7(6), 583–584 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikkelsen B, Birket-Smith E, Bradt S et al. Clonazepam in the treatment of epilepsy. A controlled clinical trial in simple absences, bilateral massive epileptic myoclonus, and atonic seizures. Arch. Neurol. 33(5), 322–325 (1976).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin D, Hirt HR. Clinical experience with clonazepam (Rivotril) in the treatment of epilepsies in infancy and childhood. Neuropediatr. 4, 245–266 (1973).
   Google Scholar
• Naito H, Wachi M, Nishida M. Clinical effects and plasma concentrations of long-term clonazepam monotherapy in previously untreated epileptics. Acta Neurol. Scand. 76(1), 58–63 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obeid T, Panayiotopoulos CP. Clonazepam in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 30(5), 603–606 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanda RN, Johnson RH, Keogh HJ, Lambie DG, Melville ID. Treatment of epilepsy with clonazepam and its effect on other anticonvulsants. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 40(6), 538–543 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ames FR, Enderstein O. Clinical and EEG response to clonazepam in four patients with self-induced photosensitive epilepsy. S. Afr. Med. J. 50(3F), 1432–1434 (1976).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne TR. Clonazepam. N. Engl. J. Med. 299(15), 812–816 (1978).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombroso CT, Forsythe I. Long-term follow-up of acetazolamide (Diamox) in the treatment of epilepsy. Epilepsia 1, 493–500 (1969).
   Google Scholar
• Chiao DH, Plumb RL. Diamox in epilepsy. A review of 178 cases. J. Pediatr. 58, 211–218 (1961).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resor SR Jr, Resor LD. Chronic acetazolamide monotherapy in the treatment of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Neurology 40(11), 1677–1681 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montouris G, Biton V, Rosenfeld W, the Topiramate YTC/YTCE study group. Nonfocal generalized tonic-clonic seizures: response during long-trem topiramate treatment. Epilepsia 41(Suppl. 1), S77–S81 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wheless JW. Use of topiramate in childhood generalized seizure disorders. J. Child. Neurol. 15(Suppl. 1), S7–S13 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nieto BM. Characteristics and indications of topiramate. Rev. Neurol. 35(Suppl. 1), S88–S95 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Prasad A, Knowlton RC, Mendez M, Martin R, Kuzniecky R, Faught E. A comparison of lamotrigine and topiramate in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 43(Suppl. 7), 198–199 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Prasad A, Kuzniecky RI, Knowlton RC et al. Evolving anti-epileptic drug treatment in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Arch. Neurol. 60(8), 1100–1105 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenhill L, Betts T, Smith K. Effect of levetiracetam on resistant juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 43(Suppl. 7), 179 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resor SR, Resor LD. Levetiracetam monotherapy in the treatment of convulsive seizures in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. American Academy Neurology, 54th Annual Meeting, April (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Jongsma M, Janssen G, Engelsman M, Haan D. Promising results of levetiracetam in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 43(Suppl. 8), 153 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czapinski PP, Czapinska EM. The effectiveness of levetiracetam in drug-resistant juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 45(Suppl. 3), 141 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• La Neve A, Boero G, Specchio N et al. Levetiracetam is effective in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia 45(Suppl.3), 141 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite DG, Marescaux C, Stodieck S, Edelbroek PM, Oosting J. Photosensitive epilepsy: a model to study the effects of anti-epileptic drugs. Evaluation of the piracetam analogue, levetiracetam. Epilepsy Res. 25(3), 225–230 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheless JW, Sankar R. Treatment strategies for myoclonic seizures and epilepsy syndromes with myoclonic seizures. Epilepsia 44(Suppl. 11), 27–37 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerman-Sagie T, Watemberg N, Kramer U, Shahar E, Lerman P. Absence seizures aggravated by valproic acid. Epilepsia 42(7), 941–943 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callahan DJ, Noetzel MJ. Prolonged absence status epilepticus associated with carbamazepine therapy, increased intracranial pressure, and transient MRI abnormalities. Neurology 42(11), 2198–2201 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snead OC III, Hosey LC. Exacerbation of seizures in children by carbamazepine. N. Engl. J. Med. 313(15), 916–921 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liporace JD, Sperling MR, Dichter MA. Absence seizures and carbamazepine in adults. Epilepsia 35(5), 1026–1028 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelisse P, Genton P, Kuate D, Pesenti A, Baldy-Moulinier M, Crespel A. Worsening of seizures by oxcarbazepine in juvenile idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia 45(10), 1282–1288 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP. Typical absence seizures and their treatment. Arch. Dis. Child. 81, 351–355 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schapel G, Chadwick D. Tiagabine and non-convulsive status epilepticus. Seizure 5(2), 153–156 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckardt KM, Steinhoff BJ. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in two patients receiving tiagabine treatment. Epilepsia 39(6), 671–674 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genton P. When anti-epileptic drugs aggravate epilepsy. Brain Dev. 22(2), 75–80 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osorio I, Reed RC, Peltzer JN. Refractory idiopathic absence status epilepticus: a probable paradoxical effect of phenytoin and carbamazepine. Epilepsia 41(7), 887–894 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Agostino MD, Andermann F, Dubeau F, Fedi M, Bastos A. Exceptionally long absence status: multifactorial etiology, drug interactions and complications. Epileptic Disord. 1(4), 229–232 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callenbach PM, Geerts AT, Arts WF et al. Familial occurrence of epilepsy in children with newly diagnosed multiple seizures: Dutch Study of Epilepsy in Childhood. Epilepsia 39(3), 331–336 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg AT, Levy SR, Testa FM, Shinnar S. Classification of childhood epilepsy syndromes in newly diagnosed epilepsy: interrater agreement and reasons for disagreement. Epilepsia 40(4), 439–444 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loiseau P, Duche B, Pedespan JM. Absence epilepsies. Epilepsia 36(12), 1182–1186 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oller L. Prospective study of the differences between the syndromes of infantile absence epilepsy and syndromes of juvenile absence epilepsy. Rev. Neurol. 24(132), 930–936 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirsch E, Marescaux C. What are the relevant criteria for a better classification of epileptic syndromes with typical absences? In: Idiopathic Generalised Epilepsies. Malafosse A, Genton P, Hirsch E, Marescaux C, Broglin D, Bernasconi R (Eds). John Libbey & Company Ltd, London, UK, 87–93 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Loiseau P, Duche B. Childhood absence epilepsy. In: Typical Absences and Related Epileptic Syndromes. Duncan JS, Panayiotopoulos CP (Eds). Churchill Communications Europe, London, UK, 152–160 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Cobb WA, Gordon N, Matthews SC, Nieman EA. The occipital delta rhythm in petit mal. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 13, 142–143 (1961).
   Google Scholar
• Bureau M, Guey J, Dravet C, Roger J. Etude de la répartition des absences chez l’enfant en fonction de ses activités. Rev. Neurol. 118, 493–494 (1968).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henriksen O, Johannessen SI. Clinical and pharmacokinetic observations on sodium valproate – a 5-year follow-up study in 100 children with epilepsy. Acta Neurol. Scand. 65(5), 504–523 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourgeois B, Beaumanoir A, Blajev B et al. Monotherapy with valproate in primary generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia 28(Suppl. 2), S8–S11 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinovic Z. Comparison of ethosuximide with sodium valproate. In: Advances in Epileptology. XIV Epilepsy International Symposium. Parsonage M, Grant RHE, Craig AG, Ward AA (Eds). Raven Press, NY, USA, 301–305 (1983).
   Google Scholar
• Coppola G, Licciardi F, Sciscio N, Russo F, Carotenuto M, Pascotto A. Lamotrigine as first-line drug in childhood absence epilepsy: a clinical and neurophysiological study. Brain Dev. 26(1), 26–29 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan N. The use of lamotrigine in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Seizure 5(2), 149–151 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fattouch J, Di Bonaventura C, Mari F et al. Role of levetiracetam in the treatment of primary generalised epilepsy. Epilepsia 45(Suppl. 3), 142 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Ferrie CD, Koutroumanidis M, Rowlinson S, Sanders S. Idiopathic generalised epilepsy with phantom absences and absence status in a child. Epileptic Disord. 3(2), 63–66 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Obeid T, Waheed G. Absences in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: a clinical and video-electroencephalographic study. Ann. Neurol. 25(4), 391–397 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Obeid T, Tahan AR. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: a 5-year prospective study. Epilepsia 35(2), 285–296 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serratosa JM, Delgado-Escueta AV, Medina MT, Zhang Q, Iranmanesh R, Sparkes RS. Clinical and genetic analysis of a large pedigree with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Ann. Neurol. 39(2), 187–195 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grunewald RA, Panayiotopoulos CP. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. A review. Arch. Neurol. 50(6), 594–598 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilliam F, Steinhoff BJ, Bittermann HJ, Kuzniecky R, Faught E, Abou-Khalil B. Adult myoclonic epilepsy: a distinct syndrome of idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Neurology 55(7), 1030–1033 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins AJ, Zifkin B, Andermann F, McGovern E. Seizures induced by thinking. Ann. Neurol. 11(6), 608–612 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goossens LA, Andermann F, Andermann E, Remillard GM. Reflex seizures induced by calculation, card or board games, and spatial tasks: a review of 25 patients and delineation of the epileptic syndrome. Neurology 40(8), 1171–1176 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramani V. Reading epilepsy. Adv. Neurol. 75, 241–262 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Radhakrishnan K, Silbert PL, Klass DW. Reading epilepsy. An appraisal of 20 patients diagnosed at the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, between 1949 and 1989, and delineation of the epileptic syndrome. Brain 118( Pt 1), 75–89 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Koutroumanidis M, Koepp MJ, Richardson MP et al. The variants of reading epilepsy. A clinical and video-EEG study of 17 patients with reading-induced seizures. Brain 121(Pt. 8), 1409–1427 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf P, Inoue Y. Complex reflex epilepsies: reading epilepsy and praxis induction. In: Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Roger J, Bureau M, Dravet C, Genton P, Tassinari AC, Wolf P (Eds). John Libbey & Co. Ltd, Eastleigh, UK, 315–325 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Gelisse P, Genton P, Thomas P, Rey M, Samuelian JC, Dravet C. Clinical factors of drug resistance in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 70(2), 240–243 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen J. Levetiracetam monotherapy for primary generalised epilepsy. Seizure 12(3), 150–153 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covanis A, Katsalouli M. Levetiracetam monotherapy in generalised epilepsy and photosensitivity. Epilepsia 44(Suppl. 8), 80 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Gelisse P, Crespel A, Genton P, Baldy-Moulinier M. Dramatic effect of levetiracetam on epileptic negative myoclonus. Acta Neurol. Scand. 107(4), 302–303 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite DG, Hirsch E. Levetiracetam: preliminary efficacy in generalized seizures. Epileptic Disord. 5(Suppl. 1), S39–S44 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krauss GL, Betts T, Abou-Khalil B, Bergey G, Yarrow H, Miller A. Levetiracetam treatment of idiopathic generalised epilepsy. Seizure 12(8), 617–620 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher MJ, Eisenman LN, Brown KM et al. Levetiracetam reduces spike–wave density and duration during continuous EEG monitoring in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia 45(1), 90–91 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isojarvi JI, Rattya J, Myllyla VV et al. Valproate, lamotrigine, and insulin-mediated risks in women with epilepsy. Ann. Neurol. 43(4), 446–451 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace SJ. Myoclonus and epilepsy in childhood: a review of treatment with valproate, ethosuximide, lamotrigine and zonisamide. Epilepsy Res. 29(2), 147–154 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin Y, Itomi K, Takada H et al. Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infants: video-EEG features and long-term follow-up. Neuropediatrics 29(5), 268–271 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dravet C, Bureau M. Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy. In: Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence (Third Edition). Roger J, Bureau M, Dravet C, Genton P, Tassinari CA, Wolf P (Eds). John Libbey & Co. Ltd, London, UK, 69–79 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Guerrini R, Parmeggiani A, Kaminska A, Dulac O. Myoclonic astatic epilepsy. In: Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Third Edition. Roger J, Bureau M, Dravet C, Genton P, Tassinari CA, Wolf P (Eds). John Libbey & Co. Ltd, London, UK, 105–112 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Kaminska A, Ickowicz A, Plouin P, Bru MF, Dellatolas G, Dulac O. Delineation of cryptogenic Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and myoclonic astatic epilepsy using multiple correspondence analysis. Epilepsy Res. 36(1), 15–29 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dulac O, Kaminska A. Use of lamotrigine in Lennox-Gastaut and related epilepsy syndromes. J. Child. Neurol. 12(Suppl. 1), S23–S28 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jayawant S, Libretto SE. Topiramate in the treatment of myoclonic-astatic epilepsy in children: a retrospective hospital audit. J. Postgrad. Med. 49(3), 202–206 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jeavons PM. Nosological problems of myoclonic epilepsies of childhood and adolescence. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 19, 3–8 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton RE, Panayiotopoulos CP, Acomb BA, Beirne M. Eyelid myoclonia with typical absences: an epilepsy syndrome. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 56(12), 1312–1316 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giannakodimos S, Panayiotopoulos CP. Eyelid myoclonia with absences in adults: a clinical and video-EEG study. Epilepsia 37(1), 36–44 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotopoulos CP, Ferrie CD, Giannakodimos S, Robinson RO. Perioral myoclonia with absences: a new syndrome. In: Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes. Wolf P (Ed.). John Libbey & Company Ltd, London, UK, 143–153 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Bureau M, Tassinari AC. The syndrome of myoclonic absences. In: Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence (Third Edition). Roger J, Bureau M, Dravet C, Genton P, Tassinari AC, Wolf P (Eds). John Libbey & Co. Ltd, Eastleigh, UK, 305–312 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Janz D. ‘Aufwach’-epilepsien (als ausdruckeinerden ‘nacht’-oder ‘schlaf’-epilepsien gegenuberzustellenden verlaufsform epileptischer erkrankungen). Arch. Z. Neurol. 73–98 (1953).
   Google Scholar
• Janz D. The grand mal epilepsies and the sleeping-waking cycle. Epilepsia 3, 69–109 (1962).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian W. Bioelectrical characteristics of daily periodic forms of the course of epileptic diseases. Dtsch. Z. Nervenheilkd. 181, 413–444 (1960).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christian W. The sleeping-waking period in sleeping-waking epilepsy. Nervenarzt 32, 266–275 (1961).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hitiris N, Brodie MJ. Evidence-based treatment of idiopathic generalized epilepsies with older anti-epileptic drugs. Epilepsia (2005) (In Press).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trevathan E. Epilepsy syndrome-specific anti-epileptic drug therapy for children. Lancet 356(9242), 1623–1624 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koutroumanidis M. Treatment of epilepsies associated with typical absences. Expert Rev. Neurotherapeutics 2(3), 391–402 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duncan JS. Anti-epileptic drugs and the electroencephalogram. Epilepsia 28(3), 259–266 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton RE, Beirne M. Absence epilepsy in children: the role of EEG in monitoring response to treatment. Seizure 5(2), 147–148 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klass DW. Electroencephalographic manifestations of complex partial seizures. Adv. Neurol. 11, 113–140 (1975).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar