Prevention, diagnosis and treatment of delirium: staff educational approaches

References

• Rockwood K, Lindesay J. The concept of delirium: historical antecedents and present meanings. In: Delirium in Old Age. Lindesay J, Rockwood K, Macdonald A (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1–8 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Caraceni A, Grassi L. Delirium: historical concepts and current definitions. In: Delirium: Acute Confusional States in Palliative Medicine. Caraceni A, Grassi L (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1–20 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Packard RC. Delirium. Neurologist7, 327–340 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHO. The ICD-10. Classification of mental and behavioural disorders: diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: WHO(1993).
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition. Washington, DC, USA (1994).
   Google Scholar
• O’Keeffe S. The prevention of delirium. In: Delirium in Old Age. Lindesay J, Rockwood K, Macdonald A (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 153–185 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Cole MG, McCusker J, Bellavance F et al. Systematic detection and multidisciplinary care of delirium in older medical inpatients: a randomised trial. Can. Med. Assoc. J.167, 753–759 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young LJ, George J. Do guidelines improve the process and outcomes of care in delirium? Age Ageing32, 525–528 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korevaar JC, van Munster BC, de Rooij SE. Risk factors for delirium in acutely admitted elderly patients: a prospective cohort study. BMC Geriatr.5, 1–8 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sherman FT. Delirium. More common than stroke; it befuddles both clinicians and seniors. Geriatrics57, 5–6 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Minden SL, Carbone LA, Barsky A et al. Predictors and outcomes of delirium. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry27, 209–214 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCarthy MC. Detecting acute confusion in older adults: comparing clinical reasoning of nurses working in acute, long-term, and community health care environments. Res. Nurs. Health26, 203–212 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekker AY, Weeks EJ. Cognitive function after anaesthesia in the elderly. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol.17, 259–272 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bitsch MS, Foss NB, Kristensen BB, Kehlet H. Pathogenesis of and management strategies for postoperative delirium after hip fracture: a review. Acta. Orthop. Scand.75, 378–389 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fann JE. The epidemiology of delirium: a review of studies and methodological issues. Semin. Clin. Neuropsych.5, 64–74 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laurila JV, Pitkala KH, Strandberg TE, Tilvis RS. The impact of different diagnostic criteria on prevalence rates for delirium. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord.16, 156–162 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Folstein MF, Bassett SS, Romanoski AJ, Nestadt G. The epidemiology of delirium in the community: the Eastern Baltimore Mental Health Survey. Int. Psychogeriatr.3, 169–176 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Inouye SK, Schlesinger MJ, Lyndon TJ. Delirium: a symptom of how hospital care is failing older persons and a window to improve quality of hospital care. Am. J. Med.106, 565–573 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie DL, Zhang Y, Holford TR, Bogardus ST, Leo-Summers LS, Inouye SK. Premature death associated with delirium at 1-year follow up. Arch. Intern. Med.165, 1657–1662 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kulh MA, Mumford VA, Sorensen R, Budge MM. Management of delirium: a clinical governance approach. Aust. Health Rev.29, 246–252 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meagher DJ. Delirium: optimising management. Br. Med. J.322, 144–149 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Samuels SC, Evers MM. Pragmatic guidance for managing a common, confounding, and sometimes lethal condition. Geriatrics57, 33–38 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kales HC, Kamholz BA, Visnic SG, Blow FC. Recorded delirium in a national sample of elderly inpatients: potential implications for recognition. J. Geriatr. Psych. Neurol.16, 32–38 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rabinowitz T. Delirium: an important (but often unrecognized) clinical syndrome. Curr. Psych. Rep.4, 202–208 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andrew MK, Freter SH, Rockwood K. Incomplete functional recovery after delirium in elderly people: a prospective cohort study. BMC Geriatr.5, 5 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duppils GS, Wikblad K. Delirium: behavioural changes before and during the prodromal phase. J. Clin. Nurs.13, 609–616 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole M, McCusker J, Dendukuri N, Han L. The prognostic significance of subsyndromal delirium in elderly medical inpatients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.51, 754–760 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caraceni A, Grassi L. Delirium: historical concepts and current definitions. In: Delirium: Acute Confusional States in Palliative Medicine. Caraceni A, Grassi L (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 42–60 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg DB. Preventing delirium at the end of life: lessons from recent research. Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psych.5, 62–67 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cole M, McCusker J, Dendukuri N, Han L. Symptoms of delirium among elderly medical inpatients with or without dementia. J. Neuropsych. Clin. Neurosci.14, 167–175 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Evans LK. Sundown syndrome in institutionalized elderly. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.35, 101–108 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallesch CW, Hundsalz A. Language function in delirium: a comparison of single word processing in acute confusional states and probable Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Lang.46, 592–606 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aakerlund LP, Rosenberg J. Writing disturbances: an indicator for postoperative delirium. Int. J. Psych. Med.24, 245–257 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baranowski SL, Patten SB. The predictive value of dysgraphia and constructional apraxia for delirium in psychiatric inpatients. Can. J. Psych.45, 75–78 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Lindesay J, Rockwood K, Rolfson D. The epidemiology of delirium. In: Delirium in Old Age. Lindesay J, Rockwood K, Macdonald A (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 27–50 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• de Rooij SE, Schuurmans MJ, van der Mast RC, Levi M. Clinical subtypes of delirium and their relevance for daily clinical practice: a systemic review. Int. J. Geriatr. Psych.20, 609–615 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spiller JA, Keen JC. Hypoactive delirium: assessing the extent of the problem for inpatient specialist palliative care. Palliat. Med.20, 17–23 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcantonio E, Ta T, Duthie E, Resnick NM. Delirium severity and psychomotor types: their relationship with outcomes after hip fracture repair. JAGS50, 850–857 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos FS, Wahlund LO, Varli F, Velasco IT, Jonhagen ME. Incidence, clinical features and subtypes of delirium in elderly patients treated for hip fractures. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord.20, 231–237 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Misra S, Ganzini L. Delirium, depression, and anxiety. Crit. Care Clin.19, 771–787 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Charlton BG, Kavanau JL. Delirium and psychotic symptoms: an integrative model. Med. Hypotheses58, 24–27 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabet N, Hudson S, Sweeney V et al. An educational intervention can prevent delirium on acute medical wards. Age Ageing34, 152–156 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rockwood K, Cosway S, Stolee P et al. Increasing the recognition of delirium in elderly patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.42, 252–256 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caraceni A and Grassi L. Diagnostic assessment. In: Delirium: Acute Confusional States in Palliative Medicine. Caraceni A, Grassi L (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 119–130 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Robertsson B. The instrumentation of delirium. In: Delirium in Old Age. Lindesay J, Rockwood K, Macdonald A (Eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 9–25 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Cole MG, Dendukuri N, McCusker J, Han L. An empirical study of different diagnostic criteria for delirium among elderly medical inpatients. J. Neuropsych. Clin. Neurosci.15, 200–207 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trzepacz PT, Baker RW, Greenhouse J. A symptom rating scale for delirium. Psychiatry Res.23, 89–97 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA, Balkin S, Siegal AP, Horwitz RI. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. A new method for detectionof delirium. Ann. Intern. Med.113, 941–948 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurila JV, Pitkala KH, Strandberg TE, Tilvis RS. Confusion assessment method in the diagnostics of delirium among aged hospital patients: would it serve better in screening than as a diagnostic instrument? Int. J. Geriatr. Psych.17, 1112–1119 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ely EW, Margolin R, Francis J et al. Evaluation of delirium in critically ill patients: validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). Crit. Care Med.29, 1370–1379 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breitbart W, Rosenfeld B, Roth A, Smith MJ, Cohen K, Passik S. The memorial delirium assessment scale. J. Pain Symptom Manage.13, 128–137 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trzepacz PT, Mittal D, Torres R, Kanary K, Norton J, Jimerson N. Validation of the Delirium rating scale-revised-98: comparison with the delirium rating scale and the cognitive test for delirium. J. Neuropsych. Clin. Neurosci.13, 229–242 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaudreau J-D, Gagnon P, Harel F, Tremblay A, Roy MA. Fast, systematic, and continuous delirium assessment in hospitalised patients: the nursing delirium scale. J. Pain Symptom Manage.29, 368–375 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J. Psychiatr. Res.12, 189–198 (1975).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Britton A, Russell R. Multidisciplinary team intervention for delirium in patients with chronic cognitive impairment (review). In: The Cochrane Library Issue 3, Oxford, UK (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Fick DM, Agostini JV, Inouye SK. Delirium superimposed on dementia: a systematic review. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.50, 1723–1732 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keeffe ST, Mulkerrin EC, Nayeem K, Varughese M, Pillay I. Use of serial mini-mental state examinations to diagnose and monitor delirium in elderly hospital patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.53, 867–870 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamis D, Morrison C, Treloar A, Macdonald AJD, Martin FC. The performance of the clock drawing test in elderly medical inpatients: does it have utility in the identification of delirium? J. Geriatr. Psych. Neurol.18, 129–133 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhat R, Rockwood K. Inter-rater reliability of delirium rating scales. Neuroepidemiology25, 48–52 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett WC, Stokes DK, Taylor LB, Young ML, Free SM, Phelan DG. Management of behavioral symptoms in disturbed elderly patients: comparison of trifluoperazine and haloperidol. J. Clin. Psych.48, 234–236 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Silver PA, Simpson GM. Antipsychotic use in the medically ill. Psychother. Psychosom.49, 120–136 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adams F. Emergency intravenous sedation of the delirious, medically ill patient. J. Clin. Psych.49(Suppl.), 22–27 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with delirium. Am. J. Psych.156(5 Suppl.), 1–20 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Tune L. The role of antipsychotics in treating delirium. Curr. Psychiatry Rep.4, 209–212 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz TL, Masand PS. The role of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium. Psychosomatics43, 171–174 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim KY, Bader GM, Kotlyar V, Gropper D. Treatment of delirium in older adults with quetiapine. J. Geriatr. Psych. Neurol.16, 29–31 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horikawa N, Yamazaki T, Miyamoto K et al. Treatment for delirium with risperidone: results of a prospective open trial with 10 patients. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry25, 289–292 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skrobik YK, Bergeron N, Dumont M, Gottfried SB. Olanzapine vs haloperidol treating delirium in a critical care setting. Intensive Care Med.30, 444–440 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KU, won WY, Lee HK et al. Amisulpride versus quetiapine for the treatment of delirium: a randomized, open prospective study. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol.20, 311–314 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pae CU, Lee SJ, Lee C, Paik IH. A pilot trial of quetiapine for the treatment of patients with delirium. Human Psychopharmacol.19, 125–127 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han CS, Kim YK. A double-blind trial of risperidone and haloperidol for the treatment of delirium. Psychosomatics45, 297–301 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neil W, Curran S, Wattis J. Antipsychotic prescribing in older people. Age Ageing32, 475–483 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pandharipande P, Shintani A, Peterson J et al. Lorazepam is an independent risk factor for transitioning to delirium in intensive care unit patients. Anesthesiology104, 21–26 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carnes M, Howell T, Rosenberg M, Francis J, Hildebrand C, Knupped J. Physicians vary in approaches to the clinical management of delirium. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.51, 234–239 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trzepacz PT. Is there a final common neural pathway in delirium? Focus on acetylcholine and dopamine. Semin. Clin. Neuropsych.5, 132–148 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dautzenberg PL, Mulder LJ, Olde Rikkert MG, Wouters CJ, Loonen AJ. Delirium in elderly hospitalised patients: protective effects of chronic rivastigmine usage. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry19, 641–644 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moretti R, Torre P, Antonello RM, Cattaruzza T, Cazzato G. Cholinesterase inhibition as a possible therapy for delirium in vascular dementia: a controlled, open 24-month study of 246 patients. Am. J. Alzheimer’s Dis. Other Demen.19, 333–339 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slatkin N, Rhiner M. Treatment of opioid-induced delirium with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: a case report. J. Pain Symptom Manage.27, 268–273 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jackson KC, Lipman AG. Drug therapy for delirium in terminally ill patients (review). In: The Cochrane Library, issue 3, Oxford, UK (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Tabet N, Howard R. Delirium: Treat with care (letter). Br. Med. J.322, 1602 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Flaherty JH, Tariq SH, Raghavan S, Baskshi S, Moinuddin A, Morley JE. A model for managing delirious older inpatients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.51, 1031–1035 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milisen K, Foreman MD, Abraham IL et al. A nurse-led interdisciplinary intervention program for delirium in elderly hip-fracture patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.49, 523–532 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inouye SK, Foreman MD, Mion LC, Katz KH, Cooney LM Jr. Nurses’ recognition of delirium and its symptoms: comparison of nurse and researcher ratings. Arch. Intern. Med.161, 2467–2473 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldwin R, Pratt H, Goring H, Marriott A, Roberts C. Does a nurse-led mental health liaison service for older people reduce psychiatric morbidity in acute general medical wards? A randomised controlled trial. Age Ageing33, 472–478 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lundstrom M, Edlund A, Karlsson S, Brannstrom B, Bucht G, Gustafson Y. A multifactorial intervention program reduces the duration of delirium, length of hospitalization, and mortality in delirious patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.53, 622–628 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitkala KH, Laurila JV, Strandberg TE, Tilvis RS. Multicomponent geriatric intervention for elderly inpatients with delirium: a randomized, controlled trial. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci.61, 176–181 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inouye SK. Prevention of delirium in hospitalized older patients: risk factors and targeted intervention strategies. Ann. Med.32, 257–263 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole MG, Primeau F, McCusker J, Bellavance F. Effectiveness of interventions to prevent delirium in hospitalized patients: a systematic review. Can. Med. Assoc. J.155, 1263–1268 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Cronin-Stubbs D. Delirium intervention research in acute care settings. Annu. Rev. Nurs. Res.14, 57–73 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kalisvaart KJ, de Jonghe JF, Bogaards MJ et al. Haloperidol prophylaxis for elderly hip-surgery patients at risk for delirium: a randomized placebo-controlled study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.53, 1658–1666 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liptzin B, Laki A, Garb JL, Fingeroth R, Krushell R. Donepezil in the prevention and treatment of post-surgical delirium. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry13(12), 1100–1106 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milisen K, Lemiengre J, Braes T, Foreman MD. Multicomponent intervention strategies for managing delirium in hospitalised older people: systematic review. J. Adv. Nurs.52, 79–90 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inouye SK, Bogardus ST, Charpenter PA et al. A multicomponent intervention to prevent delirium in hospitalized older patients. N. Engl. J. Med.340, 669–676 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcantonio ER, Flacker JM, Wright RJ, Resnick NM. Reducing delirium after hip fracture: a randomised trial. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.49, 516–522 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie DL, Zhang Y, Bogardus ST, Holford TR, Leo-Summers LS, Inouye SK. Consequences of preventing delirium in hospitalized older adults on nursing home costs. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.53, 405–409 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tabet N, Stewart R, Hudson S et al. Male gender influences response to an educational package for delirium prevention among older people: a stratified analysis. Int. J. Geriatr. Psch. (2006) [In Press].
   Google Scholar
• Inouye SK, Bogardus ST, Williams CS, Leo-Summers L, Agostini JV. The role of adherence on the effectiveness of nonpharmacologic interventions: evidence from the delirium prevention trial. Arch. Intern. Med.163, 958–964 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Draper B, Low LF. What is the effectiveness of acute hospital treatment of older people with mental disorders? Int. Psychogeriatr.17, 539–555 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shah A, De T. The effect of an educational intervention package about aggressive behaviour directed at the nursing staff on a continuing care psychogeriatric ward. Int. J. Geriatr. Psych.13, 35–40 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brymer C, Cavanagh P, Denomy E, Wells K, Cook C. The effect of a geriatric education program on emergency nurses. J. Emerg. Nurs.27, 27–32 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar